2.1. The concept of habitat and conditions of existence, characteristics of living environments
Wednesday- this is everything that surrounds the body and directly or indirectly affects its condition, development, growth, survival, reproduction, etc. The environment of each organism is composed of many elements of inorganic and organic nature and elements introduced by man, his activities. At the same time, some elements may be necessary for the body, others are almost or completely indifferent to it, and others have a harmful effect. The habitat of an organism(s) is the environment. The conditions of existence, or the conditions of life, are a set of elements of the environment necessary for the organism, with which it is in inseparable unity and without which it cannot exist. An organism is any living being that has a set of basic life properties. The main and important pattern in the "environment-organism" system is the inseparable connection and mutual influence of the environment and the organism. As an organism experiences the impact of the environment (the action of a complex of environmental factors), so the environment undergoes changes as a result of the impact of living organisms. The appearance of our planet would be completely different if there was no life on the planet (there would be no oxygen in the atmosphere, there would be no such thing as soil, etc.). The specified regularity of the "environment-organism" system was formulated by V. I. Vernadsky and received the name of the law of the unity of the organism and its environment: life develops as a result of a constant exchange of matter and information based on the flow of energy in the total unity of the environment and the organisms inhabiting it. From this law follows the evolutionary-ecological principle, according to which a species of organisms can exist as long as its environment corresponds to the genetic possibilities of adapting this species to its fluctuations and changes. The influence of the species on the environment is evolutionarily increasing, which is an important ecological regularity. According to her, any biological system, being in a mobile equilibrium with its natural environment and developing evolutionarily, increases its impact on the environment. The pressure on the environment grows until it is strictly limited by external factors.
There are abiotic, biotic, anthropogenic environment. Abiotic environment - a combination of factors inanimate nature(temperature, humidity, radiation, etc.) in which the given organism exists. The biotic environment is the totality of living organisms with which a given organism interacts. Anthropogenic environment - natural environment, directly or indirectly modified by man. On Earth, there are 4 environments of life: water, ground-air, soil (soil) and living organisms(Figure 2.1). In the course of a long historical development living matter and the formation of more and more perfect forms of living beings, organisms, mastering new habitats, were distributed on Earth according to its mineral shells - the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and adapted to existence in strictly defined conditions. The first medium of life was water. It was in her that life arose. In the process of historical development, organisms began to populate the ground-air environment. As a result, terrestrial plants and animals appeared, which evolved, adapting to new conditions of existence. In the process of functioning of living matter on land, the surface layer of the lithosphere gradually transformed into soil. It began to be inhabited by aquatic and terrestrial organisms, creating a specific complex of inhabitants. Some low-organized animals and all plants enter their environment passively and survive if they are adapted to it. Most animals actively choose the environment that suits them, or even sometimes create it themselves (for example, beavers build dams to raise the water level).
Aquatic life environment has a number of features. Its characteristic feature is mobility - it is clearly expressed in flowing, fast-flowing rivers, streams, and even in stagnant reservoirs, this takes place. Ebb and flow, powerful currents, storms are observed in the seas and oceans; In lakes, water moves under the influence of wind and temperature. The movement of water ensures the supply of aquatic organisms with oxygen and nutrients, leads to an equalization of temperature throughout the reservoir.
Figure 2.1 - The main living environments (according to A.S. Stepanovskikh, 2003)
In the life of aquatic organisms, the vertical movement of water plays an important role. IN summer time The warmest layers of water are located at the surface, and the coldest layers are at the bottom. In winter, with a decrease in temperature, surface cold waters with temperatures below 4 ° C are located above relatively warm ones. As a result, the vertical circulation of water is disturbed. In spring, surface water, due to heating to 4 ° C, becomes denser and sinks deeper, and warmer water rises in its place from the depth. As a result of such vertical circulation in the reservoir, the temperature of the entire water mass is equalized for a certain time. With a further increase in temperature, the upper layers of water become less and less dense and no longer sink, and temperature stratification occurs. In autumn, the surface layer cools, becomes denser and sinks deeper, displacing warmer water to the surface. This happens before the autumn vertical leveling of the water. When surface waters are cooled below 4°C, they again become less dense and again remain on the surface. As a result, the circulation of water stops and temperature stratification occurs again. In lakes of tropical latitudes, the water temperature on the surface does not fall below 4 ° C, and the temperature gradient in them is clearly expressed to the deepest layers. Mixing of water, as a rule, occurs here irregularly in the coldest time of the year.
Water as a living medium has special physical and chemical properties. Temperature regime it is fundamentally different from that in other environments. In the World Ocean, the amplitude of fluctuations (differences between extreme values) is approximately 38 ° C, with the lowest being about -2 ° C, and the highest + 36 ° C. In fresh inland waters of temperate latitudes, the temperature of surface water layers ranges from -0.9 up to + 25 ° C. Especially favorable conditions for life are created by such thermodynamic properties of the aquatic environment as high specific heat capacity, high thermal conductivity, expansion during freezing. These conditions are also ensured by the high latent heat of fusion of water, as a result of which the temperature under the ice does not drop below its freezing point (for fresh water, about 0°C). Since water has the highest density at 4 ° C, and expands when it freezes, in winter ice forms only from above, while the main water column does not freeze, which ensures the preservation of life in reservoirs under ice. Water is characterized by a significant density (800 times more than air), viscosity. These features affect plants in that their mechanical tissue develops weakly or not at all, therefore their stems are very elastic and easily bent. Big influence aquatic organisms are affected by light and the light regime. Especially it affects the distribution of plants. The light regime is determined by a regular decrease with depth, since water absorbs light. It depends on the turbidity of the water, which is related to the amount of particles suspended in the water. The light regime changes according to the seasons of the year. Water salinity plays an important role in the life of aquatic organisms. Different reservoirs have a certain chemical composition. The most important are carbonates, sulfates, chlorides. The amount of dissolved salts in 1 liter of water in fresh waters does not exceed 0.5 g, in the oceans and seas it reaches 35 g. One of the most important gases contained in water is oxygen. The main source of oxygen is the photosynthetic activity of green plants, it also comes from the atmosphere. Different animals exhibit different oxygen requirements. For example, trout is very sensitive to its deficiency, while roach and carp are unpretentious in this regard. Carbon dioxide contained in water provides photosynthesis of aquatic plants, and also takes part in the formation of skeletal formations of animals. The content of carbon dioxide in water is 700 times greater than in the atmosphere. Of great importance in the life of aquatic organisms is the concentration of hydrogen ions (pH). Freshwater pools with a pH of 3.7–4.7 are considered acidic, 6.95–7.30 are neutral, and those with a pH greater than 7.8 are alkaline. The concentration of hydrogen ions plays an important role in the distribution of hydrobionts. Most freshwater fish tolerate a pH of 5 to 9. If pH value less than 5, there is a mass death of fish, and at a value above 10, many fish and other animals die. The aquatic environment is inhabited by many species of plants and animals - from microscopic organisms to the largest, presented in the modern era.
Approximately 150,000 species of animals live in the aquatic environment, or about 7% of their total number (Figure 2.2) and 10,000 species of plants (8%).
Figure 2.2 - Distribution of the main classes of animals
by habitats (according to G. V. Voitkevich, V. A. Vronsky, 1989)
feature ground-air environment is that the organisms living here are surrounded by air, which is a mixture of gases, and not their compounds. Air as an environmental factor is characterized by a constant composition - it contains 78.08% nitrogen, about 20.9% oxygen, about 1% argon, and 0.03% carbon dioxide. Due to carbon dioxide and water, organic matter is synthesized and oxygen is released. During respiration, the opposite reaction to photosynthesis occurs - the consumption of oxygen. Oxygen appeared on Earth about 2 billion years ago, when the surface of our planet was being formed during active volcanic activity. A gradual increase in the oxygen content has occurred over the past 20 million years. Development played a major role in this. flora land and ocean. Without air, neither plants, nor animals, nor aerobic microorganisms can exist. Most animals in this environment move on a solid substrate - soil, and plants take root in it. Air as a gaseous living medium is characterized by low humidity, density and pressure, as well as a high oxygen content. The environmental factors operating in the ground-air environment are distinguished by a number of specific features: the light here is more intense compared to other environments, the temperature undergoes stronger fluctuations, and humidity varies significantly depending on geographical location, season and time of day. The impact of almost all of these factors is closely related to the movement of air masses - the wind. Air, like other environmental factors, has a direct and indirect effect on organisms. When exposed directly, it is of little ecological importance. The indirect influence of air is carried out through winds, which change the nature of such important factors as temperature and humidity, and have a mechanical effect on organisms. Often, strong winds blowing in one direction bend the branches and trunks of trees to the leeward side, which causes the appearance of flag-shaped crowns. Wind causes a change in the rate of transpiration in plants. This is especially pronounced during dry winds, which dry up the air and often cause the death of plants. The wind plays a certain role in the pollination of anemophilous plants (wind-pollinated plants), which have developed a number of adaptations for this: their flower covers are usually reduced and pollen is not protected from the wind. Ascending and especially descending currents in the atmosphere often create conditions for cold air to stagnate and accumulate near the soil surface, which causes a delay in the development of plants and animals. Air currents play a certain role in the settlement of plants and animals. The fruits of plants (anemochores) have many devices that increase their windage, and are carried by the wind over long distances. For the ground-air environment, as well as for the water, a clearly defined zonality is characteristic. At the same time, any combination of vegetation cover and animal population correspond to the morphological divisions of the geographic envelope of the Earth - climatic zones. Each climatic zone is characterized by a peculiar vegetation and animal population.
The atmosphere contributes to the conservation of heat on the planet, which would otherwise be dissipated in the cold of outer space. She herself, thanks to the forces of gravity of the Earth, does not evaporate. The atmosphere not only supports life, it serves as a protective screen. At a height of 20–25 km from the Earth's surface, under the influence of solar ultraviolet radiation, some oxygen molecules are split into free oxygen atoms. The latter can re-form the oxygen molecule, its triatomic form called ozone. Ozone, forming a thin layer in the upper layers of the atmosphere - the ozone screen, provides the fragile terrestrial life with its further existence.
Soil as habitat is a collection of weathered parent rock, living organisms and their metabolic products. The soil has specific physical properties. It is characterized by a more or less loose structure, a certain water permeability and aerability. It also has peculiar biological features, since it is closely related to the vital activity of organisms. Its upper layers contain a mass of plant roots. In the process of growth, death and decomposition, they loosen the soil and create a certain structure, and at the same time conditions for the life of other organisms. Burrowing animals mix the soil mass, and after death become a source of organic matter for microorganisms. Due to its specific properties, the soil performs one of the important functions in the life of various soil organisms and, above all, plants, providing them with water supply and mineral nutrition.
The optimal supply of soil water available to plants (Figure 2.3) is an extremely important factor. In the soil, biologically useful and biologically useless water is distinguished. Biologically useful is water, freely moving through the capillaries of the soil and uninterruptedly supplying plants with moisture. The value of the soil in the water supply of plants is the higher, the easier it gives them water, which depends on the structure of the soil and the degree of swelling of its particles. Distinguish physical and physiological dryness of the soil. With physical dryness, the soil lacks moisture. This occurs during atmospheric drought, which is usually observed in dry climates and in places where the soil is moistened only due to precipitation. The physiological dryness of the soil is a more complex phenomenon. It arises as a result of the physiological inaccessibility of physically accessible water. Plants, even on wet soils, can experience water deficiency when the low temperature of the soil cover, other unfavorable conditions interfere with the normal functioning of the root system. So, in sphagnum bogs, despite the large amount of moisture, water is inaccessible to many plants due to the high acidity of the soil, its poor aeration and the presence of toxic substances that disrupt the normal physiological function of the root system. Physiologically dry are also highly saline soils. Due to the high osmotic pressure of the soil solution, the water of saline soils is inaccessible to many plants. The soil plays an important role in the mineral nutrition of plants. Together with water into plants through root system a number of minerals that are in the soil in a dissolved state enter. However, root nutrition of plants is not a simple absorption of substances, but a complex biochemical process in which soil microorganisms play a special role, the secretions of which are absorbed by the root system. Therefore, most higher plants have mycorrhiza, which significantly increases the active surface of the roots. Soil organic matter plays an important role in the growth and development of plants. Humus, or humus, for soil inhabitants is the main source of mineral compounds and energy necessary for life. It determines the fertility of soils and their structure. The processes of mineralization of organic matter and humus provide a constant supply of such important plant nutrients as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, potassium, and microelements to the soil solution. Humus serves as a source of physiologically active compounds (vitamins, organic acids, polyphenols, etc.) that stimulate plant growth. Humus substances also provide a water-stable soil structure, which creates a favorable water-air regime for plants. Microorganisms, plants and animals living in the soil are in constant interaction with each other, as well as with the environment. These relationships are very complex and varied. Animals and bacteria consume vegetable carbohydrates, proteins, fats. Fungi destroy cellulose, in particular wood. Predators feed on the tissues of their prey. Thanks to these relationships and as a result of fundamental changes in the physical, chemical and biochemical properties of the rock, soil-forming processes are constantly taking place in nature.
Figure 2.3 - Types of soil water available to plant roots
(according to N.I. Nikolaykin, 2004)
1 – soil particles; 2 - hygroscopic water; 3 - capillary water;
4 - air or gravity water
Figure 2.4 - Living organisms as a living environment
(according to A. S. Stepanovskikh, 2003)
Favorable conditions for human life on our planet are very limited, the area of \u200b\u200bhis habitat occupies only a small part of the biosphere, however, by changing both the natural environment and creating new, specific environments, at present, man inhabits almost all natural zones of the Earth.
For a favorable life, the following components of a person are important: air, water, soil, the contents of the bowels, flora and fauna, climate, components of the energy environment. Let's consider them in more detail
When breathing, thousands of cubic meters of air pass through our lungs every year, so it is air pollution that primarily affects the human body.
Air environment for a person can be:
¾ outdoor (outside), located outdoors (street, park, forest), in which most people spend on average up to 10-15% of the time during the day;
¾ internal production ( workplace), on which they usually spend about 30% of the time (8 hours);
¾ internal residential (inside) - living quarters (houses, apartments). In them, a person usually spends up to 70% of the time.
The air of a clean outdoor environment is the most favorable for breathing in terms of composition and properties, but at present its quality is declining for various reasons. The main problems associated with the state of the external environment will be discussed below (see section 2.4). The quality of the air of the internal production environment is one of the main subjects of consideration for the discipline "Life Safety", which is an obligatory component of education in the direction "Technospheric Safety"
Indoor air in residential premises has, as a rule, a high content of carbon dioxide and other chemical substances: formaldehyde(sources - furniture, plywood, polystyrene), asbestos(insulating material), various combustion products, such as CO, NO, etc.
Water environment. Man does not live in an aquatic environment, but the quality of water is of great importance to him. For humans, the aquatic environment includes superficial And underground water.
- Surface waters are concentrated mostly in the World Ocean, the surface of which is 361 million km 2 (2.4 times the land area (149 million km 2)).
- Underground waters are: salty, brackish (lower salinity) and fresh.
The most important for humans is fresh water, which makes up only 2.7% of the total volume of water on Earth, and only 0.36% of it is available in easily accessible places.
River waters are of the greatest practical importance for humans. Lake water is used to a lesser extent, and glacial water is still practically not used. Significant water reserves are concentrated in the aquifers of rocks (groundwater).
Formally Russian Federation is one of two water-abundant countries (along with Brazil). One inhabitant of Russia accounts for 28.5 thousand m 3 / year fresh water, however, the distribution of river runoff is extremely uneven. The average long-term total runoff of rivers in Russia is 4270 km 3 /year, however, more than 90% of it falls on the basins of the Arctic and Pacific oceans. The basins of the Caspian and Azov Seas, where 80% of Russia's population lives and where its main industrial and agricultural potential is concentrated, account for less than 8% of the total annual runoff.
For example, Rostov, Astrakhan, Lipetsk, Voronezh, Belgorod, Kursk regions, the Republic of Kalmykia and some other regions are insufficiently provided with their own water resources. In addition, there is a progressive decline in the water resources of the southern rivers of the country under the influence of economic activity. The decrease in annual runoff averages from 10% (Volga) to 50% or more (Kuban, Terek, Ural, etc.), which exceeds the level of environmentally acceptable water intake.
The soil is the surface fertile layer of the earth's crust. The amount of food produced directly depends on it. In the biosphere, it performs two main functions that are of great importance for humans:
the production of organic matter;
Mineralization of dead organic residues.
At present, the soil has also become a biological filter that absorbs and neutralizes industrial and domestic waste.
Most often, soil is considered as land resources, i.e. land systematically used or suitable for use for specific economic purposes. Land resources are limited. They are not replaceable by other means of production. They differ in agricultural production properties, fertility and location. The land fund of the world is distributed as follows:
1. cultivated land - 11.3%, of which - arable 10.4%;
2. uncultivated land - 88.7%, of which meadows and pastures - 25.8%; forest land - 29.6%; other lands - 33.3%.
The quality of productive land in different regions of the Earth can vary greatly. On a significant part of the land, land use in general and agriculture in particular is limited by various natural factors:
28% of the land surface is occupied by deserts and semi-deserts, i.e. areas subject to severe aridity
On 23% of lands in soils, either a deficiency of biophilic elements is observed, which sharply reduces productivity, or the accumulation of toxic compounds (soil salinization);
22% of the land is in the mountains, in these areas agriculture is constrained by high surface slopes, a high risk of erosion and thin soils;
10% of land experiences excessive moisture with stagnation ground water and swamping;
At 6%, agriculture is limited as a result of the development of permafrost.
Thus, only on 11% of the lands there are no serious limiting factors and more or less full-fledged agriculture is possible.
At the beginning of the 21st century, on average, there was about 0.3 hectares of arable land per person (in Japan 0.04 hectares, in the USA 0.63 hectares, in Russia 0.88 hectares). Since the 1970s, this number has been continuously declining, despite the constant involvement of new lands in agricultural circulation. This is primarily due to population growth.
It should be noted that due to intensive farming, the quality of land is declining. In dry and hot climates, this often leads to desertification. This phenomenon has been observed since ancient times. So, at present, most of the territory of Western Asia (Iran, Iraq, Syria) is a desert, on which agriculture appeared at one time (approximately 10 thousand years ago).
The main reasons for the decrease in the quantity and quality of agricultural land are: soil pollution, overgrowth of small contour and remote areas with forests and shrubs, the development of erosion processes, flooding and waterlogging of lands.
The soils around large cities and industrial centers are contaminated for several tens of kilometers with heavy metals, oil products, and fluorine compounds.
Erosion- this is the process of destruction of the soil cover and the demolition of soil particles by water flows (water erosion) or wind (wind erosion). In Russia, the area of arable land subject to water and wind erosion is 82 million hectares, or 64% of its total area. Every year, the area of eroded lands increases by 0.4-0.5 million hectares, and the loss of fertile soil is 1.5 billion tons. A significant part of the irrigated and drained agricultural lands requires a comprehensive reconstruction, and the collector and drainage network also needs to be reconstructed. Despite drainage reclamation, the areas of waterlogged and waterlogged lands are constantly increasing. Of all agricultural lands, 7.3% have saline lands to varying degrees. Although soil deoxidation work is constantly being carried out, their area is practically not decreasing and now amounts to about 5 million hectares. The condition of arid territories in Russia is deteriorating everywhere, desertification is becoming more and more significant. The pace of reclamation of disturbed lands is also unsatisfactory.
The state of land resources around the world, and especially in developing countries, raises serious concerns in connection with the tasks of increasing food production.
Subsoil - part of the earth's crust located below the soil layer, and in its absence - below earth's surface and the bottom of reservoirs and drains, extending to the depths available for geological study and development. The main component of the subsoil are mineral resources- a set of minerals contained in the bowels of the earth, which are the basis for the development of sectors of the national economy. As part of the mineral resources, there are: non-ferrous and rare metals, precious metals, energy raw materials, non-metallic minerals, raw materials for the construction industry, healing springs and mud.
Subsoil provides raw materials not only for industry, but also for agriculture (for the production of mineral fertilizers). On the globe every 15-18 years there is a doubling of the volume of mining. The share of Russia in the global mining and industrial production is 14%. In our country, 9-10% of world oil production is extracted annually, 20-25% natural gas, 5-7% coal, 7-8% iron ores, 12-20% nickel and cobalt, more than 10% tungsten, 26% diamonds, 12% potassium salts, 6% phosphorus concentrate, a significant part of other non-ferrous and rare metals, gold , silver, platinum and platinoids. Mineral products continue to be the main component of Russian exports, providing about 70% of all foreign exchange earnings in Russia.
In terms of explored reserves, Russia occupies a leading position in the world. In the depths of Russia, whose territory is 12% of the Earth's land, 14% of the world's oil reserves, 35% of gas, 11% of coal, 26% of iron ores, a significant part of the world's reserves of gold, diamonds, non-ferrous and rare metals are concentrated.
In general, the problem of quantitative growth in production concerns only a limited range of minerals (manganese, chromium, antimony, mercury, muscovite, fluorspar). However, it should be noted that the level of losses is quite high in the underground method of coal mining (23.5%), chromium ore (27.7%), potash salts (62.5%). The state suffers serious damage from the loss of valuable components during their processing and transportation. The most acute questions are the complex use of mineral raw materials. Currently, the mining complex has become one of the largest sources of pollution environment.
Vegetation cover plays a huge role in human life. Plants are involved in the formation of soil humus, in the formation of the gas composition of atmospheric air. The most important plant resource of the globe is the forest, which produces more than 60% of biologically active oxygen. (one tree in 24 hours restores the amount of oxygen that is necessary for the normal breathing of three people during the day). Green plants of the continents make up 99.2% of the biomass of the Earth's organisms, and forests account for more than 90% of the total plant biomass on land. Therefore, forests occupy the most important place in the life of man and nature. The forest as an integral part of the biosphere is a powerful regulator of climate and water balance. Its role is high in purifying atmospheric air from harmful impurities and pathogenic microbes, replenishing oxygen reserves, maintaining the balance of the chemical composition of the atmosphere, especially the balances of oxygen, carbon and nitrogen; in maintaining the hydrological regime of rivers; soil erosion prevention; fight against droughts and dry winds. 1 hectare of forest, depending on its species composition, is able to absorb 5-10 tons of carbon dioxide and release 10-20 tons of oxygen during the year. In addition, the forest is a habitat for a variety of different types wild animals, a place where mushrooms and berries grow, a supplier of wood - the most valuable raw material for human economic activity. It has been proven that only the recreational value of forests is ten times higher than the cost of all timber.
The role of tree plantations is not only in the retention of dust, the absorption of carbon dioxide, but also in the remarkable quality of plants to release phytoncides into the environment, biologically active substances that inhibit the growth and development of pathogens. The forest belts are the best remedy optimal snow distribution in the fields. Unfortunately, in many regions of Russia, as well as throughout the world, there is an increase in the rate of negative changes in vegetation cover and a decrease in floristic diversity. Between 8 and 21% of wild flora species need protection.
Despite the increase in last years forested area, the quality of the forest is deteriorating due to a decrease in density and a decrease in the age composition of plantations.
Animal world to renewable natural resources. It is of great importance for soil-forming processes, participates in the formation of the gas composition of the atmosphere, the water regime and the flora of the biosphere.
Science knows two reasons for the extinction of animals: natural processes due to environmental changes, and human activity. When the rate of environmental change exceeds the adaptive capacity of species, the latter die out. Now there is a trend towards the depletion of the fauna by about 10% of the world fauna.
The faunistic diversity of wild animals on the territory of Russia in 1991 was estimated as follows: insects up to 80 thousand species, aquatic non-vertebrates up to 12 thousand, freshwater fish about 400, marine fish about 2400, amphibians 26, reptiles 66, birds 720, mammals 328 species . Nowadays, there is a trend towards the depletion of the fauna, especially in areas with a high concentration of industry and population, on average, by about 10% of the world's faunal diversity.
Climate. The climatic environment is an important factor determining the development various kinds living organisms. No less important is the climate both for the development of human society as a whole, and for economic development individual countries.
A characteristic feature of Russia is that in most of its territory the climate is colder than in other countries. For example, let's give the average January temperature in different cities of the world: Moscow - -6.5 ° С; Washington - + 2.2 ° С; New York - + 0.3 ° С; Rome - + 8.1 ° С; Stockholm - -2.3 ° С; Paris - + 4.2 ° С. It should also be noted that the cold period in our country is on average 2-3 months longer than, for example, in Europe.
49% of the country's territory is occupied by permafrost soils. From the point of view of ecology, the climatic conditions of Russia are the least favorable: firstly, increased fuel consumption for heating leads to additional air pollution in the cold season, and secondly, the northern regions are more sensitive to pollution and less resistant to external influences.
Energy environment as a component of the human environment, they are formed under the influence of noise, vibration, ultrasound, infrasound, electromagnetic fields, ionizing radiation. They can be of natural and artificial origin.
Noise is any sound that is outside the range of sound comfort. Most often these are disordered sound vibrations; but there are also ordered ones that interfere with the perception of the necessary sounds or cause an unpleasant sensation and damage the organs of hearing. Noise levels can be characterized by the intensity of the sound. Noise is measured in decibels and the audible range is 140 decibels.
The higher the frequency of sound in the area of ultrasound and audible sound, the harder it is to endure the noise. Sudden sharp sounds of high frequency are especially hard to bear. The human ear perceives sounds with a frequency of 16-20000 Hz. Inaudible vibrations with a frequency of less than 16 Hz are infrasound, and with a frequency of more than 20,000 Hz, ultrasound and hypersound. Noise adaptation is not possible. With noise of 30-40 dB, slight discomfort is felt. 50-60 dB negatively affects the nervous system of a person, especially those engaged in mental work (distracting, irritating effect).
Vibration is called complex vibrations in mechanical systems, which are transmitted through the ground and are perceived only upon contact with a vibrating body; at a frequency of 1-100 Hz, they are perceived as tremors.
The main sources of vibration are technological impact equipment (hammers, presses), powerful power plants (pumps, compressors, engines), rail transport. Vibrations propagate along the ground and reach the foundations of public and residential buildings, often causing sound vibrations that have a destructive effect on structures and structures.
Electromagnetic pollution (according to N. Reimers) occurs as a result of changes in the electromagnetic properties of the environment, leading to disruptions in the operation of electronic systems and changes in fine cellular and molecular biological structures. Natural changes in the electromagnetic background (with changes in solar activity, magnetic "storms", etc.) are called electromagnetic anomalies. IN Lately, in connection with the widest development of electronic control systems, transmissions, communications, electric power facilities, anthropogenic electromagnetic pollution has come to the fore - the creation of artificial electromagnetic fields (EMF). Their influence on our lives is diverse, but not well understood.
Thus, electromagnetic pollution occurs as a result of changes in the electromagnetic properties of the environment. Recently, much attention has been paid to artificial electromagnetic fields (EMF), the source of which is radio transmitting devices, electrified vehicles, power lines, etc.
Ionizing radiation is a type of radiation, the interaction of which with the environment leads to the formation of ions. A few decades ago, it came only from natural sources of radioactivity. With the beginning of the use of nuclear energy, an artificial radiation load due to civilization was added to natural radiation. The impact of ionizing radiation on living organisms in areas of radioactive contamination can cause severe damage, including genetic damage.
The main types of ionizing radiation are:
α rays, heavy, positively charged particles moving at 107 m/s and being absorbed by aluminum foil a few microns (millionth of a meter) thick. These particles are helium nuclei.
β - lungs, negatively charged particles moving at a speed close to the speed, and absorbed by a layer of aluminum 1 mm thick. These particles are electrons.
γ rays- strongly penetrating radiation that does not deviate either in electrical or in magnetic fields. The nature of γ rays is hard e / m radiation, which has an even shorter wavelength than x-rays.
Radioactivity- spontaneous transformation of an unstable nuclide into another nuclide, accompanied by the emission of ionizing radiation.
The main characteristic of the degree of danger of ionizing radiation is the dose of radiation (a portion of energy transferred by radiation to a substance). There are several groups of doses. For example, e exposure dose is the amount of g-radiation capable of ionizing dry air. The exposure dose characterizes the potential danger of g-radiation. Absorbed dose the amount of energy of any type of radiation absorbed per unit mass of a substance. This is the physical dose of radiation.
The equivalent dose is the amount of energy of any type of radiation absorbed per unit mass of a substance, taking into account the quality of the radiation. This is the most important dose in terms of biological effect. It cannot be measured, but must be calculated.
The problem of the impact on the natural environment and human health of the energy environment deserves the closest attention.
Habitat refers to the space used by living organisms for existence. So the topic is direct relation to the question of the life of any creature. There are four types of habitats, in addition, there are various factors that transform external influences, so they also need to be considered.
Definition
So what is an animal habitat? The definition appeared in the nineteenth century - in the works of the Russian physiologist Sechenov. Each living organism constantly interacts with the surrounding phenomena, which it was decided to call the environment. Her role is twofold. On the one hand, all the life processes of organisms are directly related to it - this is how animals get food, they are affected by climate, On the other hand, their existence has no less impact on the environment, largely determining it. Plants maintain the balance of oxygen and shade the soil, animals make it looser. Almost any change is caused by living organisms. The habitat needs a comprehensive study by anyone who wants to have an understanding of biology. It is also important to know that some creatures can live in different conditions. Amphibians are born in the aquatic environment, and often winter and feed on land. Beetles that live in the air often need soil or water to reproduce.
Water
The aquatic environment is the totality of all oceans, seas, glaciers and continental waters of our planet, the so-called hydrosphere, in addition, sometimes it also includes Antarctic snows, atmospheric fluids and those contained in organisms. It occupies more than seventy percent of the surface with the bulk in the oceans and seas. Water is an integral part of the biosphere, not only water bodies, but also air and soil. Every organism needs it to survive. Moreover, it is water that distinguishes the Earth from neighboring planets. In addition, she played a key role in the development of life. It accumulates organic and inorganic substances, transports heat, shapes climate, and is found in both animals and plant cells. That is why the aquatic environment is one of the most important.
Air
The mixture of gases that forms the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role for all living organisms. The air habitat has guided evolution, since oxygen forms a high metabolism, which determines the structure of the respiratory organs and the water-salt exchange system. Density, composition, humidity - all this is of great importance for the planet. Oxygen was formed two billion years ago in the process of volcanic activity, after which its share in the air steadily increased. The modern human environment is distinguished by a 21% content of this element. An important part of it is also the ozone layer, which does not allow ultraviolet radiation to reach the Earth's surface. Without it, life on the planet could be destroyed. Now the safe human habitat is under threat - the ozone layer is being destroyed due to negative environmental processes. This leads to the need for conscious behavior and constant choice of the best solutions not only for people, but also for the Earth.
The soil
Many living organisms live in the earth. The habitat is also used by plants that serve as food for most of the planet's living beings. It is impossible to unambiguously determine whether the soil is an inanimate formation, therefore it is called a bioinert body. According to the definition, this is a substance that is processed in the course of the vital activity of organisms. The soil habitat consists of a solid mass including sand, clay, silt particles; liquid component; gaseous is air; alive - these are the creatures that inhabit it, all kinds of microorganisms, invertebrates, bacteria, fungi, insects. Five tons of such forms live on every hectare of land. The soil habitat is intermediate between aquatic and terrestrial-air, therefore, the organisms living in it often differ in a combined type of respiration. You can meet such creatures even at an impressive depth.
Interaction of organisms and environment
Each creature differs from the presence of metabolism and cellular organization. Interaction with the environment occurs constantly and should be studied in a comprehensive manner due to the complexity of the processes. Each organism directly depends on what is happening around. The ground-air environment of a person affects him by precipitation, soil conditions and temperature range. Some of the processes are beneficial to the organism, some are indifferent, and others are harmful. Each has its own definition. For example, homeostasis is the constancy of the internal system, which distinguishes living organisms. The habitat can change, which requires adaptation - movements, growth, development. Metabolism is the metabolism that is accompanied by chemical reactions such as breathing. Chemosynthesis is the process of creating organic matter from sulfur or nitrogen compounds. Finally, it is worth remembering the definition of ontogeny. This is a set of transformations of the body, which are influenced by all environmental factors for the entire period of its existence.
Environmental factors
For a better understanding of biological processes, it is also necessary to study this definition. are a set of environmental conditions that affect a living organism. They are subdivided according to complex classification into several types. An organism's adaptation to them is called adaptation, and its appearance, reflecting environmental factors, is called a life form.
Nutrients
This is one of the types of environmental factors that affect living organisms. The habitat contains salts and elements from water and food. Biogenic ones are those that are necessary for the body in large quantities. For example, these are phosphorus, important for the formation of protoplasm, and nitrogen, the basis for protein molecules. The source of the first is dead organisms and rocks, and the second is atmospheric air. The lack of phosphorus affects existence almost as sharply as the lack of water. Slightly inferior in value are elements such as calcium, potassium, magnesium and sulfur. The first is necessary for shells and bones. Potassium makes it work nervous system and plant growth. Magnesium is included in the molecules of chlorophyll and ribosomes, and sulfur is in the composition of amino acids and vitamins.
Abiotic environmental factors
There are other processes that affect living organisms. Habitat includes factors such as light, climate, and the like, which are by definition abiotic. Without them, the processes of respiration and photosynthesis, metabolism, seasonal flights, and the reproduction of many animals are impossible. First of all, light is important. Its length, intensity and duration of exposure are taken into account. In relation to it, a whole classification is distinguished, which is studied by biology. A habitat filled with light is needed by heliophytes - meadow and steppe grasses, weeds, tundra plants. Sciophytes need shade, they prefer to live under the canopy of the forest - these are forest grasses. Facultative heliophytes can adapt to any conditions: trees, strawberries, geraniums belong to this class. Another important factor is temperature. Each organism has a certain range that is comfortable for life. Water, the presence of chemicals in the soil, and even fires are all related to the abiotic realm.
Biotic factors
Anthropogenic factor
Water, air or terrestrial habitats are always associated with human activities. People intensively change the world around them, strongly influencing its processes. Anthropogenic factors include every impact on organisms, the landscape or the biosphere. It can be direct if directed at living creatures: for example, improper hunting and fishing undermine the population of some species. Another option is an indirect impact, when a person changes the landscape, climate, air and water conditions, soil structure. Consciously or unconsciously, but a person destroys many species of animals or plants, while cultivating others. This is how a new environment appears. There are also incidental impacts, such as the sudden importation of alien organisms in the cargo, improper drainage of marshes, the creation of dams, the spread of pests. However, some creatures die out without any human participation, so blaming people for all environmental issues just unfair.
Limiting factors
All kinds of influence exerted on organisms from all sides manifest themselves in varying degrees. Sometimes the key is the substances that are required in the minimum amount. Accordingly, it was developed. It suggests that the weakest link in the chain of needs of the body is considered to be its endurance as a whole. Thus, if the soil contains all the elements, except for the one necessary for growth, the crop will be poor. If you add only the missing one, leaving all the others in the same quantity, it will become better. If you add all the rest, without correcting the shortage, no changes will occur. The missing element in such a situation will be the limiting factor. However, it is worth considering the maximum impact. It is described by Shelford's law of tolerance, which suggests that there is only a certain range in which a factor can remain beneficial for the body, while in excess it becomes harmful. Ideal conditions are called the optimum zone, and deviations from the norm are called oppression. The maxima and minima of impacts are called critical points, beyond which the existence of an organism is simply impossible. The degrees of tolerance to certain conditions are different for each living being and allow them to be classified as more or less hardy varieties.
Life originated on Earth approximately 3.7 billion years ago, according to another source, about 4.1 billion years ago. Development continues to this day. According to all assumptions, in the future, life will continue, adapting to the environment, and the presence or absence of a person will not be able to interrupt it.
Australian scientists have discovered signs of life on land, and they are 3.5 billion years old. Their findings confirmed that life originated in fresh water, and not in salty springs. Scientists have paid attention to these facts and are looking for confirmation of them on other continents.
Basic types of life
The main living environments are:
Each of the environments has its own characteristics and contains various organisms that live, reproduce and evolve.
Ground-air environment
This environment represents all the diversity of plant and animal life on Earth. The development of organic life on land allowed the emergence of soil. Then came the development of plants, forests, steppes, tundra and various animals adapting to different habitats. As a result of the further evolution of the organic world, life spread to all the upper shells of the Earth - the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere. All living things evolved and adapted to sharp fluctuations in temperature and different habitats. Warm-blooded and cold-blooded representatives of animal fauna, various birds and insects arose. In the ground-air environment, plants have adapted to various growing conditions. Some like light warm areas, others grow in shade and humidity, and still others survive in low temperatures. The diversity of this environment is represented by the diversity of life in it.
Water environment
Parallel to the development of the land-air environment, the development of the aquatic world also went on.
The aquatic environment is represented by all the water bodies that exist on our planet, ranging from oceans and seas to lakes and streams. 95% of the Earth's surface belongs to the aquatic environment.
Various giant inhabitants of the aquatic environment changed and adapted under the waves of evolution, adapted to the environment and took on the form that most increases the survival of populations. The sizes have decreased, areas of distribution of different types of their coexistence have shared. The diversity of life in the water surprises and delights. The temperature in the aquatic environment is not subject to such sharp fluctuations as in the ground-air environment, and even in the coldest water bodies it does not drop below +4 degrees Celsius. Not only fish and animals live in the water, the water also abounds with various algae. Only at great depths they are absent, where eternal night reigns, there is a completely different development of organisms.
soil habitat
Soil refers to the top layer of the earth. A mixture of various soil types with rocks, the remains of living organisms, forms fertile soil. There is no light in this environment, they live in it, or rather grow: seeds and spores of plants, roots of trees, shrubs, grasses. It also contains small algae. The earth is home to bacteria, animals and fungi. These are its main inhabitants.
The body as a habitat
Symbiosis (living together) can also be added to organisms.
The symbiosis of plants and animals does not oppress the owner, but acts as a partner in life. Symbiotic relationships allow certain types of plants and animals to survive. Symbiosis is the interval between union and fusion of organisms.
general characteristics habitat. Technosphere. Biosphere.
One of the most important concepts of ecology is the environment. The environment is a set of factors and elements that affect the organism in its habitat.
Any living being lives in a complex, constantly changing world, constantly adapting to it and regulating its life activity in accordance with its changes. Living organisms exist as open, mobile systems, stable in the influx of energy and information from the environment. On our planet, living organisms have mastered four main habitats, each of which is distinguished by a combination of specific factors and elements that affect the body.
Technosphere- this is a part of the biosphere in the past, transformed by man through the direct or indirect impact of technical means in order to best suit his material and socio-economic needs.
Creating the technosphere, man sought to increase the comfort of the environment, to increase sociability, to provide protection from natural negative influences. All this had a positive effect on living conditions and, together with other factors (improved medical care, etc.), on people's life expectancy.
But the creation by the hands and mind of a man of the technosphere, designed to satisfy his needs for comfort and safety as much as possible, far from justified the hopes of people. Irrational economic activity, greatly enhanced by the achievements of scientific and technological progress, has led to damage and depletion of natural resources, changes in the regenerative mechanisms of the biosphere, deformation of the natural circulation of substances and energy flows on the planet that has developed over many millions of years, disruption of the dynamic balance of the global terrestrial socio-ecosystem.
In the global ecosystem, the biosphere, which is a whole, nothing can be won or lost, nothing can be the object of general improvement. Everything that is extracted from it by human labor must be returned.
The payment of this "promissory note" cannot be avoided, it can only be deferred.
The technosphere includes regions, cities, industrial zones, industrial and domestic environments. The new, technospheric ones include the conditions of human habitation in cities and industrial centers, production, transport and living conditions of life.
Biosphere- the shell of the Earth, inhabited by living organisms and transformed by them. The biosphere was formed 500 million years ago, when the first organisms began to emerge on our planet. It penetrates the entire hydrosphere, the upper part of the lithosphere and the lower part of the atmosphere, that is, it inhabits the ecosphere. The biosphere is the totality of all living organisms. It is home to over 3,000,000 species of plants, animals, fungi and bacteria. Man is also a part of the biosphere, his activity surpasses many natural processes.
The term "biosphere" was introduced in biology by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck at the beginning of the 19th century, and in geology proposed by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess in 1875.
- Upper limit in the atmosphere: 15-20 km. It is determined by the ozone layer, which blocks short-wave ultraviolet radiation, which is harmful to living organisms.
- Lower boundary in the lithosphere: 3.5-7.5 km. It is determined by the temperature of the transition of water into steam and the temperature of denaturation of proteins, however, in general, the spread of living organisms is limited to a depth of several meters.
- The boundary between the atmosphere and the lithosphere in the hydrosphere: 10-11 km. Determined by the bottom of the World Ocean, including bottom sediments.
Over time, the biosphere becomes more and more unstable. There are several premature changes in the state of the biosphere that are tragic for mankind, some of them are associated with the activities of mankind.
Status of the BJD problem. BJD subject.
Life safety (BZD) is a science that studies the general properties and patterns of the influence of hazards and harmfulness on a person and develops the foundations for protecting him and his environment.
The purpose of the study life safety - the formation and promotion of knowledge aimed at reducing mortality and loss of human health from external factors and causes. Creation of human protection in the technosphere from external negative impacts of anthropogenic, technogenic and natural origin. Object of protection is a man.
Subject of study life safety - hazards and their combination, as well as means and systems of protection against hazards.
The BZD solves three interrelated tasks:
1. Identification of hazards, i.e. image recognition with indication of quantitative characteristics and hazard coordinates
2. Protection against hazards based on a comparison of costs and benefits.
3. Elimination of possible (based on the concept of residual risk) negative hazards.
Axioms of the BJD
The main provisions of the theory of life safety can be represented as a number of axioms.
Axiom 1. Any activity is potentially dangerous.
This axiom assumes the following: man-made technical means, techniques and technologies, in addition to positive properties and results, have the ability to generate dangers. For example, the creation of internal combustion engines solved many transport problems. But at the same time it led to increased injuries on the roads, gave rise to intractable tasks to protect humans and the environment from toxic vehicle emissions.
Axiom 2. For each type of activity there are comfortable conditions that contribute to its maximum efficiency.
This axiom actually declares the fundamental possibility of optimizing any activity in terms of its safety and efficiency.
Axiom 3. Natural processes, anthropogenic activities and objects of activity have a tendency to spontaneous loss of stability and (or) the ability to have a long-term negative impact on the environment, i.e. residual risk.
Axiom 4. Residual risk is the root cause of potential negative impacts on humans, the technosphere and the natural environment (biosphere).
Axiom 5. Safety is real if negative influences on a person do not exceed the maximum permissible values, taking into account their complex impact.
The next axiom actually repeats the previous one, but refers to the negative impacts on the environment.
Axiom 6. Environmental friendliness is real if the negative impacts on the biosphere do not exceed the maximum allowable values, taking into account their complex impact.
Axiom 7. Permissible values of technogenic negative impacts are ensured by compliance with environmental and safety requirements for technical systems, technologies and their regional complexes, as well as the use of ecobioprotection systems.
Axiom 8. Ecobioprotection systems at technical facilities and in technological processes must have priority commissioning and means of monitoring operating modes.
Axiom 9. Safe and environmentally friendly operation of technical facilities and production facilities is implemented if the qualifications and psychophysical indicators of the operator meet the requirements of the developer of the technical system and if the operator complies with the rules and regulations of safety and environmental friendliness.
Danger
Danger is a property of living and inanimate matter that can cause damage to a person, natural environment and material values (resources).
According to the sources of their occurrence (origin), all hazards are usually divided into natural and anthropogenic.
Natural hazards arise from natural events in the biosphere, such as floods, earthquakes, tsunamis, etc., and are also caused by climatic conditions and terrain. Their peculiarity is the unexpected occurrence, although some of them people have learned to predict, for example, hurricanes, landslides. Natural hazards that pose a threat to human life and health are classified as natural hazards. Hazards such as heat, cold, fog, natural electromagnetic fields and radiation are usually not considered as they do not pose a direct threat to human life. They are divided into lithospheric (mountain collapses, rockfalls), hydrospheric (water erosion, mudflows, tides), atmospheric (showers, snowfalls), space (solar radiation). The general patterns of such phenomena are as follows: the greater the intensity, the less often such a phenomenon; each type of danger is preceded by certain signs; there is a certain spatial confinement.
Anthropogenic hazards are mainly associated with the transformative activity of man. The sources of anthropogenic hazards are the people themselves, as well as technical means, buildings, structures - everything that is created by man (elements of the technosphere). The higher the density and energy level of the man-made means (technical systems) used, the higher the damage from anthropogenic hazards. A person always interacts with technical means (tools, household appliances) that help him in work and life, and on the other hand, they are a source of so-called man-made hazards. Technogenic hazards affect both humans and nature. The danger to a person is determined by the characteristics of technical systems and the duration of a person's stay in the danger zone.
Ecological and social are distinguished in a special group of dangers. Social hazards are those that are common in society and threaten the life and health of people. By nature, social dangers are divided into related: with a mental impact on a person (blackmail, fraud, theft, etc.); with physical violence (robbery, banditry, terror, rape, hostage-taking, etc.); with the use of substances that destroy the body (alcoholism, drug addiction, smoking, etc.); with social diseases (AIDS, venereal, etc.); with suicide. By gender and age, they are divided into those characteristic of children, youth, women, and the elderly. By organization, there are random and organized, by scale - local, regional, global. Basically, these dangers are generated by socio-economic processes in society. They are contradictory in nature due to the imperfection of human nature. Their distribution is facilitated by the development of international relations, tourism and sports.
We will consider environmental hazards that directly in everyday life have an impact on human health through food, water, air, soil. These hazards are the higher, the greater the pollution of the environment by products of human activity: pesticides, heavy metals, dioxins, dust, soot, herbicides, etc. A detailed classification of these hazards is considered in the Ecology course.
In all cases, when exposed to any hazards, the main measures of protection against hazards are: exclusion of hazards; blocking hazards and carrying out organizational and technical measures aimed at reducing these hazards to acceptable limits.
Causes.
Tree. Any danger is realized, causing damage, as a result of some reason or several reasons, therefore, prevention of dangers or protection from them is possible only if the causes are identified. There is a causal relationship between realized dangers and causes: danger is a consequence of some cause, which, in turn, is a consequence of another cause, etc. Thus, causes and dangers form hierarchical, chain structures, or systems. The graphic representation of such dependencies resembles a branching tree, therefore, in the literature analyzing the safety of objects, such terms as “cause tree”, “fault tree”, “event tree”, etc. are used. dialectical nature of cause-and-effect relationships. The separation of these branches is impractical, and sometimes impossible, therefore, the graphic images obtained in the process of analyzing the safety of objects are called "trees of causes and dangers". Building "trees" is an effective procedure for identifying the causes of various undesirable events (accidents, injuries, fires, accidents, etc.). Branch boundaries are determined by the logical expediency of obtaining new branches and determine the resolution of the tree.
Risk
Risk is the ratio of the number of certain adverse manifestations of hazards to their possible number for a certain period of time.
R-risk (1/year), n- number of adverse manifestations of danger for a certain period of time (year), N- possible number of manifestations of danger for the same period
Types of risk: A) Individual and social risk.
Individual risk characterizes the realization of the danger of a certain type of activity for a particular individual. Accident frequency rate.
Kch = Т*1000/Р, Т is the number of accidents (injuries) that have occurred over a certain period of time. P - the average number of workers for the same period.
Individual risk characterizes the danger to an individual.
Group, or social, risk is a relationship between the frequency of incidents (accidents, catastrophes) and the number of people affected by them.
B) There are also direct and indirect risks.
Direct risk is associated with the direct effect on a person of a particular hazard, for example, moving parts of equipment. By polluting the environment with the waste of their activities, a person exposes himself to an indirect risk, since the environment modified by a person may ultimately become unsuitable for his existence in it.
The concept of acceptable risk. In modern conditions, from the thesis of absolute security, they switched to the concept of acceptable (acceptable) risk, the essence of which is to strive for such a danger that society will accept in a given period of time.
Acceptable Risk At present, according to international agreement, it is considered that the effect of man-made hazards (technical risk) should be in the range from 10 -7 ... 10 -6 (1 / year -1), and the value of 10 -6 is the maximum acceptable level of individual risk. In national regulations, this value is used to assess fire safety and radiation safety. In some countries, such as the Netherlands, acceptable risks are set by law.
An individual risk of death of 10 -8 per year is considered negligible.
For ecosystems, the maximum acceptable risk is considered to be the one at which 5% of biogeocenosis species can suffer.
Motivated (reasonable) and unmotivated (unreasonable) risk. In the event of industrial accidents, fires, in order to save people and property, a person has to take a risk that exceeds the acceptable one. In this case, the risk considered reasonable (motivated). For a number of hazardous factors, for example, those arising in the event of radiation accidents, the values of the motivated risk exceeding the acceptable risk are established - "planned increased exposure", allowed in exceptional cases for persons participating in the liquidation of the consequences of radiation accidents.
unmotivated (unreasonable) a risk is a risk that exceeds an acceptable level and arises as a result of the unwillingness of workers at work to comply with safety requirements, use protective equipment, etc., which, as a rule, leads to injuries and forms the prerequisites for accidents at work.
In addition to collective acceptability, there is also individual acceptability set for yourself consciously or unconsciously and is a balance between risk and benefit. In certain cases, people are willing to voluntarily take risks that are 1000 times greater than acceptable. The decisive role in making such a decision lies in human psychology.
Methods
Facilities security
Means of collective protection - ventilation, grounding, zeroing of the fence.
Facilities personal protection(PPE) - special clothing, gas masks, earplugs, helmets.
Improving the reliability of systems. Reliability is understood as the property of the system to perform the specified functions, while maintaining the values of the established indicators over time.
Reliability indicators: a) mean time of failure-free operation; b) the probability of failure-free operation; c) failure rate. Maintainability indicators: probability of recovery; average recovery time; recovery intensity.
Psychology of bjd
Psychology is the science of the psychological reflection of reality in the process of human activity. There are several branches in psychology, including labor psychology, engineering psychology, and safety psychology.
Labor psychology- studies the psychological aspects of labor activity. Labor psychology, which arose at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, was originally called psychotechnics.
Engineering psychology- studies the processes of human interaction with technical systems, as well as the requirements for the design of machines and devices, taking into account the psychological properties of a person.
Security Psychology- studies the psychological aspects of activity. The subject of security psychology is the psychological processes, state and properties of a person that affect the conditions of security.
In other words, security psychology studies psychological, i.e. human-dependent causes of accidents and develops methods and means of protection against them.
The psychology of safety is a fundamental aspect of man-made hazards, which raises the issue of the role of man as the main participant in accidents and accidents.
The main task of safety psychology is to find out the psychological causes of accidents.
The causes of industrial accidents and injuries associated with the human factor are combined in three main areas
Anthropogenic causes of accidents
The degree of danger in the labor process depends on the nature of the production activity. Automation of production, eliminating physical labor, replaces it with a high neuropsychic burden on a person. Due to the increased load on mental activity people can experience acute protracted and chronic neuropsychiatric disorders.
Many years of experience show that in every accident and accident, human errors are traced, contributing to tragic consequences.
Erroneous actions are understood as actions that deviate from the prescribed normative actions or from the correct decisions in normal situations. Errors are divided into systematic and random. 
social dangers.
Social dangers- these are the actions of some classes, groups, strata, individuals, aimed (intentionally or unconsciously) at the destruction of others. As well as depriving them of vital conditions and objects, causing damage leading to physical and spiritual degradation, destruction of the individual, ethnic group, society, state.
Conventionally, social dangers can be reduced to three groups:
1. coming from other spheres of public life - politics, economics, military-defense affairs, etc.;
2. arising from the social sphere for the economy, politics, military and environmental security, etc.;
3. prisoners in the social sphere itself.
Especially destructive dangers for the social sphere come primarily from politics and economics. Real and potential impacts of the "shock therapy" policy on the national industrial complex (about 50% of economic power has been lost), health care systems, education, recreation, etc. painfully respond to the situation and health of people, lead to the loss of food, medical-pharmaceutical, spiritual and cultural independence, to the subordination of Russia to the West in the most important issues of the life support of the people. Some Western politicians believe that whoever has food has a weapon equivalent to an atomic bomb and can talk to the world with the power of food. Food and commodity intervention caused irreparable damage to the country's agriculture: more than 50% of the needs of the country's population are met by imports.
The second group of social dangers is associated with antagonization, the assertion of an imperfect social structure and relationships. The formation and growth of aggressive, expansionist, extremist social groups and strata (large owners, financial, trading and mafia businessmen), the division of society into poor and rich by robbing the majority by a minority (which, as Plato said, is tantamount to the emergence of two hostile states within one) , the emergence of humiliated and oppressed groups, the increased potential for hostility within the social structure give rise to a host of social dangers for society as a whole, as well as its main areas - politics, economics, science and technology, and military security. Social causes underlie many, including armed conflicts.
In the "Program for Peaceful Development" put forward by the UN Secretary-General B. Ghali in 1992, economic turmoil, social injustice and political dictatorship are named as the underlying causes of armed conflicts going on in the world.
Radical reforms have led to the fact that more than 50 million (one third of the population) live below the poverty line, and hidden unemployment is 7-9 million people. A long-term increase in poverty for the majority of the people gives rise to massive dissatisfaction with politics and the authorities, which can result in unpredictable actions.
Social threats are classified according to the following criteria:
· > directed against the social interests (needs) of citizens, groups, strata and the whole society;
> by objects, institutions, areas of the social sphere that they threaten (systems of food supply and nutrition, health, utilities etc.);
· > by scale (destructive potential of hazards, spatial and temporal characteristics - general, regional, local, short-term, long-term, etc.);
· > according to the forms of manifestation (deliberately organized, spontaneous, etc.);
· > by sources and reasons;
· > within means (violent, non-violent, military, etc.).
Sources of social dangers are:
· > unfair distribution of property, income, wealth, power;
· > restoration of an antagonistic social structure consisting of classes, groups, strata and political forces with irreconcilably opposed interests and goals, among which stand out aggressive, expansionist in nature;
· > a sharp decline in the state's social opportunities due to the fall in production, as well as major miscalculations and the initial anti-social orientation of the policy of "radical reforms", their coercive nature;
· > the deterioration of the global social situation, as well as the desire of the West to increase its influence on Ukraine for the sake of its own selfish interests.
Social dangers manifest themselves in the form of mass protests, unrest, social explosions, and so on. The main indicators of social threats are the growth rates of unfavorable processes in the social structure and relations of subjects, the sphere of social security of people's livelihoods.
The goals of social security are:
· > Ensuring sustainable civil peace based on justice, freedom, equality of opportunity and solidarity of people; purposeful formation of a socially safe state, society, individual;
· > preservation and development of society: reliable protection of life, restoration and improvement of people's health and life, creation of conditions and incentives for highly effective creative work, improvement of abilities and talents, establishment of high spirituality and culture;
· > formation and implementation of a socially oriented policy of modernization of society, designed to restore and ensure sustainable socio-economic development of the country in the future in the name of the common good of the people and every individual;
· > Proportionate to the ability of the state to contribute to the improvement of the global social situation, participation in the formation of world politics and the construction of international structures designed to overcome injustice, exploitation, poverty, hunger, mass epidemics, social diseases, etc.
All types of security (military, political, environmental, etc.) depend to a decisive extent on saving and improving production, raising the living standards of the people, restoring and strengthening their health, developing culture, and increasing their social activity, especially in the spheres of economics and politics.
On the whole, it is unlikely that there will be an objection to the assertion that the social security of a person, his environment is the most important characteristic of the quality of life and the most important component of national wealth.
Examples of social dangers:
1. Alcoholism.
2. Military action.
3. Terror by mail.
natural hazards
natural hazards- natural phenomena that pose a direct threat to the life and health of people, for example, earthquakes, floods, tsunami, hurricanes, storms, tornadoes.
Earthquake – This underground vibrations or tremors that result from the displacement of the earth's crust or the upper part of the mantle.
Flooding - flooding of the area as a result of rising water levels.
Tsunami – This huge wave.
Hurricanes - This cyclones that occur in tropical latitudes, with winds reaching 64 knots (74 mph).
Storm- it is a downpour, accompanied by a strong wind of a squally nature, which can easily cause a flood in a river, a flood or a mudflow. A storm is often preceded by a thunderstorm, strong electrical discharges of lightning.
A tornado is an atmospheric phenomenon that occurs in a thundercloud. It is an air vortex propagating downward from the cloud.
Lithospheric hazards.
Lithospheric hazard is a dangerous natural phenomenon of geophysical origin, which is characterized by a sudden disruption of the life of the population, destruction, destruction of material assets, injuries and casualties among people. Lithospheric hazards include: earthquake, landslides, mudflows, volcanoes, etc. They often have a negative impact on the environment.
An earthquake is an underground vibration or shock that occurs as a result of the displacement of the earth's crust or the upper part of the mantle. The elastic vibrations of an earthquake can be transmitted over very long distances, sometimes reaching hundreds of kilometers. Here, as we understand, everything depends on the strength of the earthquake.
Landslide- sliding and separation of masses of rocks down the slope under the action of gravity.
sel- a stream with a very high concentration of mineral particles, stones and rock fragments (up to 50-60% of the volume of the stream), which suddenly appears in the basins of small mountain rivers and dry dens and is usually caused by heavy rainfall.
Volcanoes- geological formations on the surface of the earth's crust or the crust of another planet, where magma comes to the surface, forming lava, volcanic gases, stones (volcanic bombs) and pyroclastic flows.
hydrospheric hazards.
Basic concepts of flooding
Flooding - significant flooding of the area with water as a result of a rise in the water level in a river, lake or sea caused by various reasons. Flooding on the river occurs from a sharp increase in the amount of water due to the melting of snow or glaciers located in its basin, as well as as a result of heavy precipitation. Floods are often caused by an increase in the water level in the river due to blockage of the channel by ice during ice drift (jam) or due to blockage of the channel under the immovable ice cover by accumulations of intra-water ice and the formation of an ice plug (jam). Often, floods occur under the influence of winds that drive water from the sea and cause an increase in the level due to the delay in the mouth of the water brought by the river. Floods of this type were observed in Leningrad (1824, 1924), the Netherlands (1953). On sea coasts and islands, floods may occur as a result of the flooding of the coastal strip by a wave formed during earthquakes or volcanic eruptions in the ocean (see Tsunami). Similar floods are not uncommon on the shores of Japan and other Pacific islands. Floods can be caused by breaks of dams, protective dams. Flooding occurs on many rivers in Western Europe - the Danube, Seine, Rhone, Po and others, as well as on the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers in China, Mississippi and Ohio in the United States. In the USSR, large floods were observed on the river. Dnieper (1931) and Volga (1908 and 1926).
Flood classification
Jam, zazhorny floods (jammings, zazhory) Great resistance to water flow in certain sections of the river channel, arising from the accumulation of ice material in narrowings or bends of the river during freeze-up (jamming) or ice drift (jamming). Jam floods form in late winter or early spring. They are characterized by a high and relatively short-term rise in the water level in the river. Jam floods form at the beginning of winter and are characterized by a significant (but less than during a jam) rise in the water level and a longer duration of the flood.
Surge floods (surges) Wind surges of water in sea mouths of rivers and on windy sections of the coast of the seas, large lakes, reservoirs. Possible at any time of the year. They are characterized by the absence of periodicity and a significant rise in the water level.
Floods (floodings) resulting from dam breaks An outflow of water from a reservoir or reservoir, which is formed when a pressure front structure (dams, dams, etc.) breaks or during an emergency discharge of water from a reservoir, as well as when a natural dam breaks through, created by nature during earthquakes, landslides, landslides, movement of glaciers. They are characterized by the formation of a breakthrough wave, leading to the flooding of large areas and the destruction or damage of objects encountered on the way of its movement (buildings, structures, etc.)
Causes of the flood
Long rains.
Continuous rains are one of the most common causes of floods. Depending on the terrain, the type of soil, there is a danger of accumulation of excessive water masses. Displacement of water, the combination of several streams pose a serious threat to residents and their property.
In cases with a long duration, high intensity of rain, the water level in reservoirs (most often rivers) rises. This calls for unnatural spills, provokes a large accumulation of water in areas with relief depressions, flooding a large area with water masses.
Melting snow.
Currently, there is a change in climatic conditions in various areas. Sudden changes in temperature cause a sharp freezing of a large amount of water and also its sharp melting. This causes many natural disasters, including floods. In some areas, for example, in mountainous areas, where snow could be stored and accumulated for quite a long time, due to changing climatic conditions (sharp warming, seismic activity), they begin to melt and shift, which becomes a source of landslides, mudflows and floods.
tsunami wave
After hitting the land with several huge tsunami waves, not only numerous victims and destruction remain, but a large amount of water remains on its surface for a long time, causing serious damage.
Tsunami – This huge wave. Reasons for the formation of a tsunami
Underwater earthquake (about 85% of all tsunamis). During an earthquake, a vertical movement of the bottom is formed under water: part of the bottom falls, and part rises. The surface of the water begins to oscillate vertically, trying to return to its original level - the mean sea level - and generates a series of waves. Not every underwater earthquake is accompanied by a tsunami. Tsunamigenic (that is, generating a tsunami wave) is usually an earthquake with a shallow source. The problem of recognizing the tsunamigenicity of an earthquake has not yet been solved, and warning services are guided by the magnitude of the earthquake. The strongest tsunamis are generated in subduction zones.
Landslides. Tsunamis of this type occur more frequently than was estimated in the 20th century (about 7% of all tsunamis). Often an earthquake causes a landslide and it also generates a wave. On July 9, 1958, as a result of an earthquake in Alaska, a landslide occurred in Lituya Bay. A mass of ice and terrestrial rocks collapsed from a height of 1100 m. A wave formed, reaching a height of more than 500 m on the opposite shore of the bay. Such cases are very rare and, of course, are not considered as a standard. But much more often underwater landslides occur in river deltas, which are no less dangerous. An earthquake can cause a landslide and, for example, in Indonesia, where shelf sedimentation is very large, landslide tsunamis are especially dangerous, as they occur regularly, causing local waves with a height of more than 20 meters.
Volcanic eruptions (about 4.99% of all tsunamis). Large underwater eruptions have the same effect as earthquakes. In strong volcanic explosions, not only are waves from the explosion formed, but water also fills the cavities from the erupted material or even the caldera, resulting in a long wave. A classic example is the tsunami that formed after the Krakatoa eruption in 1883. Huge tsunamis from the Krakatau volcano were observed in harbors around the world and destroyed a total of 5,000 ships, killing 36,000 people. Human activity. In our age atomic energy man had in his hands a means to cause concussions, previously available only to nature. In 1946, the United States carried out an underwater atomic explosion in a 60 m deep sea lagoon with a TNT equivalent of 20,000 tons. The wave that arose at a distance of 300 m from the explosion rose to a height of 28.6 m, and 6.5 km from the epicenter it still reached 1.8 m. landslides and explosions are always local. If several hydrogen bombs are simultaneously exploded on the ocean floor, along any line, then there will be no theoretical obstacles to the occurrence of a tsunami, such experiments were carried out, but did not lead to any significant results compared to more accessible types of weapons. At present, any underwater testing of atomic weapons is prohibited by a series of international treaties.
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