Purpose: to give the concept of the category of state as an independent part of speech; to form the ability to determine the words of the category of state in the text, to distinguish them from adverbs.
Equipment: punched cards, task cards, table, computer and projector.
During the classes
I. Motivation for cognitive activity
1. The sentences are written on the board:
The residents answered quietly, the convoy drove quietly.
Quiet in a dark village.
2. Write down the sentences, underline the members of the sentence.
What does the word "quiet" mean in each of the sentences. (in the 1st - the mode of action, in the 2nd - the state of nature)
II. goal setting
Today we will get acquainted with another part of speech, which philologists have recently identified as independent.
III. Explanation of the new topic
1. Sometimes natural phenomena, the state of the environment or a person are described as independent of the action of any external forces and of ourselves.
Such situations have special means of expression in the language. The predicate in such sentences is expressed by special words, which are called the category of the state.
2. Recording sentences, designation of the predicate.
It was getting dark in the forest. The girl was very upset. The lanes smell of the sea.
What do these words mean? (The state of nature, the state of man, the state environment).
3. Look at the table. What questions are asked to the predicate?
Working with the first part of the table.
4. Can there be a subject in such sentences?
5. Do you think that the words of the state category can change?
6. Try to figure out what part of speech it is? (The state category is an independent part of speech, which denotes the state of nature, the environment, the physical and mental state of a person. The words of the state category do not change. They are used in a sentence without a subject as a predicate). Check the textbook to see if we have drawn the right conclusion. (Reading the rule in the textbook).
note ! The words of the category of state often appear together with such verbs as was, will be, will be and etc.
Pay attention to the second part of the table.
8. Write down sentences, determine what part of speech the highlighted words are.
around was Beautiful.
The dress was Beautiful.
Man has become bad.
You bad brought up.
IV. Anchoring
1. The game "Who is more?"
Continue with a series of words that can express the following (screen projection):
a) the state of nature is windy, ... ( hot, sunny)
b) the state of the environment is dirty, ... ( dark, dry, light)
V) physical state living beings - bad, ... ( hurt, nice)
G) emotional condition man - fun, ... ( sad, scary)
e) the intellectual state of a person is clear, ... ( interesting, clear)
2. Reproductions of paintings by Russian artists are projected onto the screen (see attachment)
Independently compose sentences with the category of the state of nature and man, emphasize the category of the state as a member of the sentence (oral check)
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V. Control over the assimilation of the material
Work with punched cards (weak students at this time work on cards with tasks or perform an exercise).
The teacher reads the sentences, the students put a plus in the appropriate cells if the sentence has a state category, a minus if it does not.
Now, with colored paste, connect the pluses on the answer cards, and you will get the result: if you get “5”, then it’s true.
Punch card sample
VI. Summarizing. Homework explanation
write out 3 sentences from works of art with the words of the category of the state of nature and man.
Theme 2
I.general characteristics state categories as part of speech
II. Lexico-semantic categories of words of the state category
III. Morphological features of the words of the state category. Their syntactic functions
In the first half of the 19th century in the works of domestic linguists, a category of invariable words is consistently distinguished, which coincide in form with nouns, adjectives, adverbs, but have the meaning of a state and are used as a predicate in an impersonal sentence (laziness, sorry, you can, ashamed, funny, fun, stuffy, etc.). Such words began to be called either a category of state, or predicatives, or impersonally - predicative words. Their place and composition in the system of parts of speech was determined ambiguously.
In modern linguistics, two approaches to the words of the state category prevail.
The first approach recognizes the category of state independently, but as a significant part of speech (L. V. Shcherba, V. V. Vinogradov, etc.); the second - denies that the category of state belongs to an independent part of speech and includes it with special rights in the composition of adverbs (A.B. Shapiro and others).
The grammatical meaning of the words of the category of state is associated with the expression of the state in its broadest sense. (sad, hurt, cold, etc.).
II. Lexico-semantic categories of words of the state category
According to their lexical semantics, the words of the state category are divided into the following groups:
denoting the physical condition of a person, animal (him chilly, dog hurt);
Denoting the physical condition of a person (child funny, adult sad);
denoting a modal assessment of the state of the subject (it is necessary, it is impossible, it is possible, laziness, lack of time);
denoting an assessment of the state of nature and the environment (windy, cold, dark, stuffy);
denoting an assessment of the state of the environment in terms of temporal and spatial relationships, auditory and visual perception of objects (visible, heard).
III. Morphological features of the words of the state category. Their syntactic functions
lack of inflection forms;
the presence of analytical forms of time ( warm, it was warm; it will be warm).
the presence of analytical forms of inclination (warm, it would be warm);
The ability of some words to form degrees of comparison ( coldest was in the house)
the possibility of a number of words to have forms of subjective evaluation ( chilly, chilly);
Some linguists believe that some of the words of the state category can be combined with auxiliary verbs form forms of the form ( it got warm, it got warm).
Short neuter adjectives
adverbs for -O (quiet, pitiful, funny, simple, loud, hot, etc.),
nouns (leisure, lack of time, sin, laziness, time, hunting, pity, etc.).
When moving into the category of state, adjectives, adverbs and nouns lose their general grammatical meanings and acquire the function of the main member of an impersonal sentence. (The sky was purely(cr. adj.). washed the dishes purely(adverb). In the house purely(state category).
The category of state is a class of words that denote an independent feature, a state and do not have forms of inflection (declension and conjugation), but can express the meaning of time with the help of a linking verb. They usually answer the question what? and are used, as a rule, as the main member of one-part sentences (the predicative member of the compound nominal predicate).
The category of state includes immutable words denoting the state of living beings, nature and the environment and acting as a predicate in impersonal sentences: It was quiet in the fields, but quieter in the forest and seemed to be brighter (N. Nekrasov); Damp on a deserted street (A. Rosenbaum); Warm, sunny, quiet (A. Chekhov); I'm sad to look at you (S. Yesenin); It is frosty at night, and warm during the day (V. Chivilikhin).
In modern Russian, there are about 100 words of the category of state. All of them are heterogeneous in composition and origin. The main body of the state category includes:
a) words in -o, correlated with short forms adjectives and qualitative adverbs (good, fun, quiet, crowded, dark, gloomy, noisy, sad, funny, ashamed, bad, damp, smoky, chilly, hot, early, late): it was gloomy outside, she felt chilly, in the room was damp, the tent was smoky;
b) the words sin, shame, shame, shame, laziness, hunting, time, time, leisure, correlated with nouns; unlike the latter, they denote not objects, but certain states: it’s a sin to laugh, too lazy to play sports, I don’t have time to go shopping, I want to eat, it was a sin to think;
c) the words must, can, need, cannot, sorry, fearful, ashamed, ashamed, loving, unbearable, unbearable, which in modern Russian do not correlate with any parts of speech (adjectives, adverbs, nouns): it is scary here for him alone , you can keep the windows wide open, for this work you need three people, you can’t fall asleep from the heat;
d) words like cover, kaput, kayuk, cross, end in the meaning of death, death, end, correlated with interjections and differ from them not only in meaning and syntactic function, but also in the ability to control the dative case of nouns, combined with adverbial words: here you are and kayuk, kaput the old man, the end of dry winds, tomorrow they will be finished.
To designate this part of speech, other terms are also used that emphasize the syntactic function of words of this lexico-grammatical class: impersonal predicative words, predicatives. In the school course, these words are considered as special adverbs.
The words of the state category do not have specific morphological features. Like adverbs, the words of the state category are invariable, with the exception of words ending in -o, which have the form comparative degree, for example: It's getting colder outside. The morphological features of the words of the state category include the ability to express the meaning of time, transmitted by a bunch with which impersonal predicative words are combined (it was sad, it will be sad, it became fun, it will become fun). The absence of a link serves as an indicator of the present tense.
Impersonally predicative words can be extended by nouns and pronouns in the form of the dative case without a preposition, the genitive and prepositional cases with prepositions: I'm bored. The room is stuffy. It's sad without you. With words of the category of state, there can be adverbs of place, time, quantity, measure: The room is quiet.
The category of the state, without having clearly defined morphological features, like, for example, a verb, has attracted the attention of linguists for a hundred and fifty years. Difficulties encountered in distinguishing words of the category of state are also due to the fact that we cannot enter the categories of thought into the framework of established grammatical categories. modern man. It is quite possible that in the future the category of state or the words by which it is represented will be called differently, since the term "state" refers only to their semantics, and the term "predicatives" to the syntactic function, thus none of the names can completely express the essence of the category under study. More erroneous is the assignment of the category of state to the parts of speech of the Russian language, such as adverbs, adjectives or verbs.
It seems that the decisive moment in determining the status of the words of the state category is a complete rethinking of the view on the combination "link + word of the state category". In addition, the "bind + word of the state category" model is the main way to convey the value of the state, primarily by expanding functionality words in this group. In cases where it is required to emphasize the shades of the flow of a state or its relevance, preference is given to the verbal model, due to the categorical semantics of the verb - action. However, the etymological proximity to each other of nominal and verbal constructions makes it difficult to distinguish between them, which is why when choosing a particular model, one must be guided by logical and grammatical factors.
The set of language tools for conveying the semantics of the state in Russian is much wider and more diverse than in other languages. In addition to grammatical classes that nominate this meaning in full (these are the words of the category of state, short adjectives, short participles in the predicative function, constructions with the prepositional case), in Russian the state can be partially transmitted by verbs, adverbs, adverbs and case forms of nouns.
The semantic field of the state reflects the world of a person's inner experiences, his perception of the surrounding world, therefore language tools, expressing the state, are in constant development and are characterized by the departure from the language of the old and the emergence of new ways of conveying this meaning.
The whole variety of means of expressing the state in the language is the source of its replenishment. The category of state has a pronounced property to desemantize other parts of speech and “draw” them into its system, as a result of which they partially or completely lose their former features. All this indicates that the category of state is viable, developing, and its influence in the language will continue to grow.
1. The category of state as a part of speech. 2. Grammatical categories of words of the category of state. 3. Syntactic functions and syntactic links of words of the state category. 4. The origin of the words of the category of state. 5. The question of the category of state as a special part of speech.
Status category words - immutable words expressing a state or its assessment: warm, frosty(state of nature); stuffy, dirty(state of the environment); hurt, disgusting(physical condition of living beings); ashamed, embarrassed(mental state of a person); ok, easy(assessment of any state); necessary, not possible(modal state assessment).
Words of the state category have grammatical categories of mood and tense, expressed analytically with the help of the corresponding linking verbs ( be, become and etc.). They have the indicative and subjunctive moods: On the street it becamewarm (vyv. inkl.); It would rather bewarm (exc. incl.). The form of the imperative mood is absent from the words of the state category for the reason that they are always used in impersonal sentences: me somethingashamed began to chat, chat incessantly(I. Turgenev).
The words of the category of state are characterized by the present, past and future tenses. The present tense is expressed using a zero connective: In the roomdark . Past and future tenses are expressed using linking verbs: Three days agowas moreCold (past); Tomorrowwill become warm (bud.).
Syntax F u n c tio n
and syn t a x i c h i c h i n c i o n s
STATE CATEGORY
Unlike adverbs, the main syntactic function of which in a sentence is the function of circumstance, the words of the state category are always predicates in impersonal sentences: The room wasdark ; the second roosters just crowed(I. Turgenev).
The words of the state category can be combined with genus, dates. and suggestion. n. n. or places. Date n. usually expresses the meaning of the subject (denotes a person or object experiencing some state): man joyfully; He's bored. Genus. and suggestion. n., as a rule, express adverbial meanings: offensive to tears; it's cold outside.
Comparative table of differences between words of the category of state and short adjectives and adverbs
By origin words of the state category are divided into several groups:
1) words cat. comp. with suffix -O ascending to brief adj. or adverbs to -o: warm, cold, fun;
2) words cat. cond. ascending to nouns: sin, torment, disgrace, shame and etc.;
3) words cat. comp., not related to any part of the speech of the modern Russian language: can, can't and under.
Q o u r n i o n a t e s t a t e o r i o n s
as a special part of speech
The Russian linguist A. Kh. Vostokov was one of the first to pay attention to the peculiarities of the group of words that are now classified as words of the category of state. He attributed them to verbs, since they are characterized by "time and impersonality." A. A. Shakhmatov also referred them to verbs (however, he left some of them in the series of nouns and adverbs).
D. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, considering such words as adverbs, singled them out into a special group - predicative adverbs.
K. S. Aksakov considered them to be short adjectives that take on the meaning of verbs.
A. M. Peshkovsky, highlighting such words in a special group, did not attribute them to any of the existing parts of speech.
For the first time, the words of this group were singled out into a special part of speech by L. V. Shcherba, he also gave them the name state category. The scientist pointed out the differences between the words of the category of state from adjectives and adverbs: they differ from adjectives in invariability, from adverbs in that they can be used with a bunch.
The term "category of state" was also adopted by the outstanding Russian scientist V. V. Vinogradov, who gave a detailed and detailed description of this part of speech in the monograph "Russian language". The scientist considers the category of state to be an independent part of speech, actively developing and replenishing due to short adjectives, adverbs and separate categories of nouns. He points out that, passing into the category of state, these words acquire the sign of time, perform the syntactic function of a predicate in an impersonal sentence and designate a state.
However, not all linguists recognize the category of state as an independent part of speech. So, "Russian Grammar" (1980) words with the suffix -O, denoting the state, considers it as a special group of adverbs and calls them predicative adverbs. Words with a modal meaning are called predicatives.
In school textbooks, the words of the category of state as a special part of speech began to be considered relatively recently.
Didactic material
In the given sentences, find the adverbs and words of the state category. 1. Determine which categories adverbs belong to. 2. Indicate what meanings (states) the words of the state category express.
1. He rowed at random to the embankment, which began to separate from the black sky with a black hump (L. Andreev). 2. Having spilled narrowly and shallowly, so that the flowing blueness of the stones could be seen, the stream disappeared in the oncoming sea wave (A. Green). 3. I am ashamed of your congratulations, I am afraid of your proud words! (V. Bryusov). 4. He constantly moved his beard and blinked his eyes very quickly and twitched his lips (I. Turgenev). 5. - Look, it's too late, it's cold (M. Lermontov). 6. Only in late autumn is it so good (I. Turgenev). 7. The sun rose high; it became hot (I. Turgenev). 8. I get up and sit down. This is difficult when both legs are broken (V. Garshin). 9. - Well, it's good here - no words! and everything, you know, is somehow embarrassing for a lamb without a yar! Yes, and the uniform is also a pity! (M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).
Review questions
2. List the morphological features of adverbs, their syntactic connections and syntactic functions.
3. What ranks are adverbs divided into in modern Russian? Name them.
4. What are the differences between adverbs and words of the state category?
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STATE CATEGORY WORDS
The category of state is a class of significant immutable words denoting a state (in the broad sense of the word) and in a sentence performing the function of the main member of impersonal sentences. For example: It's so good on the Volga, it's free, it's light(M. G.); The jungle was damp and stuffy(From gas.).
All words of this part of speech can be divided into groups according to their meaning:
1. Words denoting the state of the environment (warm, cold, damp, hot, noisy, windy and etc.). For example: The school building was quiet and deserted.(Fad.).
2. Words denoting the physical state of living beings (painful, chilly and etc.). For example: She is stuffy, hot, and all, jumping up, she trembles(L.).
3. Words denoting the mental states of a person (creepy, ashamed, scary and etc.). For example: And the soul is immense and wonderful, and crowds of silver visions arise in its depths.(G.).
4. Words denoting the assessment of any state (from the side of volume, size, time, from the moral and aesthetic side, etc.: beautiful, far, late and etc.). For example: I'm far from home, And my path ahead is difficult.(Pinch); Laughing at old age is a sin(Gr.); But we'll see each other soon, And now it's time for us to go to sea(P.).
5. Words with modal meaning (should, need, can, cannot, possibly, impossible and etc.). For example: We must first redo life, Having redone, you can sing(Lighthouse.).
GRAMMATICAL FEATURES OF STATE CATEGORY WORDS
The words of the state category do not change, and only words in -o, correlative with adjectives and natural adverbs, can form the form of the comparative degree in a synthetic or analytical way (became quieter, warmer, more dangerous). The meaning of the superlative degree is expressed only descriptively, by combining the forms of the comparative degree of these words with the words everyone, everything. For example: he is happier than everyone else; It was coldest in the open field.
Some words of this group have evaluation forms (cold-new, creepy, scary etc.). For example: The room got cold.
As mentioned above, in a sentence, the words of the category of state are the main members of one-component impersonal constructions. You can also indicate some features of the combination of these words with other words in connected speech. So, the words of the category of state are combined with verbs-connectives of an abstract or semi-abstract nature. (be, become, become, become etc.), moreover, the bundle can have the forms of all times (was, will be, currently - zero) indicative mood and form subjunctive mood (it would be colder).
With words of the category of state, there can be a noun, a pronoun in the form of the D. case with the meaning of a logical subject (I'm cold), R. or P. case (It's boring without you; It's dark in the forest) can be adverbs of place, time, quantity, measure (It is dark here; It has become cold at night; It has become very quiet.) An infinitive can adjoin the words of the state category. For example: It is necessary to study a lot, seriously, honestly(M. G.).
SERVICE PARTS OF SPEECH
The service parts of speech include pre-logs, conjunctions and particles s. They differ from the significant parts of speech primarily in that they do not perform a nominative function, that is, they do not name anything. This is the first feature. Their main role is to express relationships between words or sentences, to convey various grammatical meanings or to clarify them: Frost and sun!(P.) - union And shows that the words frost, sun are on an equal footing; Would you do the same- particle would together with the form of the verb conveys the subjunctive mood.
The second feature of service words is that they cannot be used independently and cannot be members of a sentence.
Finally, it should be noted that the service parts of speech, as a rule, are unstressed. They form one phonetic word together with the word, the meaning of which is specified, if these are particles or prepositions. If they connect two independent syntactic units (meaning unions), then they (unions) always adjoin (in terms of stress) to the next word.
Stress is retained only by those service parts of speech that were formed relatively recently from significant parts of speech: thanks, though, in spite of, because and etc.
In their function, the service parts of speech are close to morphemes.
Prepositions
Preposition as a part of speech. Prepositions are a service part of speech that has an abstract lexical meaning and serves to link a noun with other words in a phrase or sentence, for example: enter the house, the entrance to the museum, not far from the house, we are with a friend. Instead of a noun in the role of a subordinate word, there can be pronominal nouns (extreme from me) Cardinal numbers (add to two) substantivized parts of speech (Love with now, love with always!(Ascended).
Prepositions can convey various relationships.
Object relations are most clearly distinguished (think of a friend, yearn for a daughter-ri) And different kinds circumstantial relations:
Temporary (at five o'clock, on Wednesday, in a week, for two days, by Monday, between two and three o'clock);
Spatial (live in the village, be at home, go to your father, go from the factory, go behind the house, walk down the street, cross the bridge);
Causal (do not come because of illness, meet due to chance, turn white with fear);
Target (do for the sake of appearance, do for the sake of glory, prepare for the parade);
concessions (despite weather conditions, contrary to predictions);
Determinants (a motorcycle with a sidecar, a striped dress, the size of a watermelon);
Compatibility (talk to brother, ride with friend) and etc.
Most prepositions are used with a strictly defined case form and cannot be used with others, for example: preposition To only with D. case; to, from, for, at, beyond- with R.; at- with P. and others. Some prepositions are used with two cases: behind- with V. and T. (behind the house, behind the house, behind the school, behind the school); on, in- with V. and P. (on yard, in the yard, to school, at school).
Rarely does a preposition govern three cases: With- can be used with R., T. and V. cases (take from the table, take with you, the size of an apple); By- with D.; V. and P. cases (walk through the Forest, go mushrooming, come in the spring).
Methodological note. Since the preposition is an important tool in determining cases, the teacher himself needs to clearly know and show it to 4th grade students how to determine the case using the preposition.
To do this, one must remember especially well those prepositions that are used with only one or predominantly with one case. For example, only with the R. case are prepositions used without, for, before. from. from behind, from under, among, from, at, about, near, near, as well as suggestions during, in continuation. The preposition with cannot be a delimiter of the R. case, since it (the preposition) is also used with the V. and T. cases.
Only with the D. case is the preposition used To; you can talk about the suggestion By, which is also predominantly used with the D. case. Cases of its use with a noun in P. case (For whom the Bell Tolls?) are extremely rare and not typical for the language of younger schoolchildren.
Prepositions are used only with V. case about And through. Prepositions V. on, for, with (co), o (about) are used not only with V., but also with other cases. Therefore, it is impossible to determine the case of a noun only by these prepositions.
The instrumental case does not have a preposition that is unique to this case. All prepositions used with other cases: with, behind, under, between, are also used with T. case.
The indicator of the P. case is the preposition at.
The preposition is closely connected not only with the dependent word in the word-combination, but also with the main one: often with the help of the preposition, shades of the meaning of the main word are distinguished, for example: consist of (substance is made up of small particles) And to be in (to be a member of the club).
The main word can determine the meaning of the preposition: come to the library And turn it into a library. In the first case, the pre-log, together with the case form, has the meaning of place, in the second - the object meaning. Regardless of the expressed semantic relations, some words require a certain preposition due to their compatibility properties (foreword to miss depend on...). However, the Russian language is also characterized by the dependence of the preposition on the formal indicators of the main word, in particular on the verb prefix: drive into the yard, run into a stone, drive over the fence, drive away from the station, drive off the road etc. Compare, however: cross the road, drive onto the sidewalk and so on.
Russian prepositions usually come before the noun (or before the adjective, if the noun has an agreed definition with it). Very rarely, prepositions can be in postposition, for example: reason contrary to what for.
The structure of prepositions. Depending on the structure, all prelogs are divided into antiderivatives (nonderivatives) and derivatives (nonderivatives).
The group of primitives includes the most ancient prepositions, which, from the point of view of the modern language, cannot be connected by origin with any part of speech. The number of such prepositions is small: without (without), in (in), before, for, for, from (iso), to (ko), on, over (necessary), o, about (obo), from (oto), by, under (under ), before (before), before (before), with, about, with (with), y, through (through).
Prepositions from behind, from under, over, over formed by adding two simple prepositions and are called double or compound.
Derivative prepositions have motivated relations with nouns, adverbs and participles.
According to the nature of correlation, they can be divided into several groups:
denominated: during, in the course of, in the course of, in the course of, in order to and etc.;
adverbs: near, along, towards, opposite, near; verbal: thanks to, including, after.
In a number of cases in modern language these words act both as a preposition and as significant words: I looked around - everything is white-white. “A crowd has gathered around me; He left thanks to us for the night. Due to his discipline, he was able to finish his dissertation ahead of schedule.
Methodological note. To distinguish the significant part of speech from the preposition, you need to find synonyms for them: We were warned the day before(= just now, recently - adverb). — We were warned on the eve of the exam(= before the exam - a preposition); During the war I worked in a factory(= to the war - an excuse). — IN Lately the plant has been successful(= in the last period - noun). — He returned a week later(= through - preposition).
According to the morphological composition, derivative prepositions are divided into simple ones, consisting of one word, for example: around, about, thanks to, because of, and compound, consisting of the case form of a noun with a primitive preposition preceding it: during, in continuation, except for, in the course of, along the way, during. Recently, complex prepositions have begun to develop more and more actively, which are a combination of the case form of a noun with the previous and subsequent simple primitive prepositions: in connection with, depending on, on the way to, towards, compare: We went to the forest. - We went in the direction of the forest.
Complex prepositions are characteristic of official business, scientific and journalistic styles, although recently they have begun to penetrate into colloquial speech, creating undesirable shades of clericalism: in the case of the dissemination of the Russian language etc. Primitive prepositions mostly have a neutral stylistic coloring. Only a few of them have a sublimity hue: amid, through, before, before. Some primitive prepositions have a connotation of colloquialism: a film about love, let's go for berries, for the sake of children.
Methodological note. students primary school get acquainted with primitive prepositions already in the period of literacy. Calling the prepositions "little words", the teacher draws the attention of the children to the fact that these words are written separately from other words. This skill is developed in a practical way in the 2nd grade (according to the 1-4 system). In the 3rd grade, when studying prefixes, the teacher compares prepositions and prefixes, again draws the attention of children to the fact that prepositions are written separately and never come before verbs. Then, when studying the noun, the children will learn with which cases prepositions are used. Particularly much attention is paid to the development of this skill in the 4th grade, when the spelling of the case endings of nouns is studied and it is required to determine the case of the noun by a number of signs, including the preposition.
In addition, the correct use of prepositions is an integral part of the culture of speech. Therefore, the teacher must carefully monitor the correct use of prepositional case constructions. Already in the first classes, attention should be paid to the use of prepositions from and with in constructions like from Moscow, from Ukraine, from the post office, from the hospital, from the school etc. In addition, the teacher needs to get the students to correctly use prepositions with a noun with the verb miss. It should say: miss mom, miss brother, but not *miss your(!) mom.
Unions
Unions are a service part of speech that serves to connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts complex sentence or to link individual sentences in a text.
A messenger rides with a letter And finally arrived(P.); The door creaked softly, And the tsar enters the room, From the side of that sovereign(P.); Our shelter is small, but calm(L.); Our anguish used to sing songs, but now our joy sings(L.-Kum.).
By origin and word-formation structure, unions are divided into primitive and derivative. Primitives arose long ago, and their meaning in the modern language is not motivated. These are unions such as: a, but, yes, or, neither, but, yes mitd.
Industrial unions appeared later. Most of them were formed from pronouns, adverbs or from prepositional pronouns, adverbs and other combinations: before; Although; contrary to; thanks to; until; due to the fact that; to; Where; What; How and others. In the modern language, the process of formation of unions continues. New unions are formed by adding specifying words to existing unions, for example: and therefore, and therefore, and then, and thereby, and therefore, and beyond that, because and etc.
According to the morphological composition, unions are divided into simple ones, consisting of one word, and compound ones, which are a combination of two or more verbal elements. Examples of simple unions: a, but, and, for, in order to, though etc. Compound unions: because, because, while and others. Among the composite unions, a group of double unions stands out: not only ... but also, insofar as ... insofar as ... so etc. The components of compound unions can follow each other, not allowing any inclusion between them, and can be divided in other words, as in double unions not only ... but also, not so much ... how much.
In compound unions, the pronominal element can be highlighted by logical stress. In this case, a pause separates the union, which is indicated in writing by a comma, which is placed after the pronominal part: thanks to; because of; due to the fact that; due to the fact that and others. Compare: Apparently, this thought repeatedly occupied the captain, because he repeatedly returned to it in the margins of other books.(Kav.); I loved my trips because I was alone(Paust.).
From double unions, it is necessary to distinguish repeating unions that make up the second group, for example: that... that, not that... not that, or... or, and... and, neither... nor etc.
By the nature of the syntactic relations that establish unions between the connected components, the unions are divided into coordinating and subordinating.
Coordinating conjunctions combine components on the basis of their equality, without indicating the dependence of one on the other. They combine or homogeneous members sentences, or parts of a compound sentence.
Subordinating unions combine unequal components and indicate the dependence of one of them on the other. Subordinating conjunctions are characteristic of a complex sentence, where the component they add (subordinate part) depends on the main part, explains it. In rare cases, subordinating conjunctions are found in a simple sentence. This is a union Although, which can add homogeneous members: The weather is warm, though windy, and comparative conjunctions, introducing comparative turns, or standing before the predicate: The day is warmer than the night; The forest stands like in a fairy tale. Union How can be used in a simple sentence in the sense of "as" when it is attached to the application, for example: Conversation as a means of education junior schoolchildren widely used by teachers.
Grammatical meanings, relations in each of these groups depend on the quality of a particular union and the content of the connected components. So, connecting unions and, yes, neither ... nor can express connecting relations and I, i.e., those in which two or more homogeneous components are combined: It's in the evening, in winter, And the noble frost(N.); The naughty Monkey, the Donkey, the Goat and the clubfoot Mishka...(Kr) Such unions are called coordinating connectives.
Separating relations are expressed with the help of coordinating disjunctive conjunctions or... or, either... either, not that... not that, that... that, either... either. These unions show that the components they connect either alternate or mutually exclude each other: What is driving you? Whether the fate of deprivation, Envy secret. Is the malice open?(L.) Coordinating adversative conjunctions ah but yes(in meaning But) show that the linked parts are opposed or juxtaposed: Soon the fairy tale is told, but not soon the deed is done(ate.).
gradation unions not only ... but also, not so much ... as, not that ... but, connecting the components, highlight the latter, indicating its special importance. For example: It is necessary to take into account not only the number of errors, but also their nature.
Subordinating conjunctions also express various dependency relationships:
Temporary: when, as soon as, as long as, as long as, as long as and etc.;
Causal: because, because, for and etc.;
Conditional: if, if, times;
Target: so that, in order to, if only;
Concessions: although, despite the fact that;
Consequences: resulting in, so;
Comparative: as, as if, as if, exactly, as if, as and etc.;
Explanatory: what how and etc.
Some unions can combine the meanings of coordinating and subordinating unions, for example: Although the eye sees, the tooth is numb. Here is the union at least... yes has a negative connotation. Conjunctions, like other words, can be ambiguous, for example union When can express temporary relations and conditional. Wed: When Boris doesn't stop being cunning, let's skillfully excite the people(P.) - union When used in a conditional sense; When the roll-call passed through the trenches, When we were talking over tea, A crested, gray bird fluttered over the edge of a draw, wild land(Surk.) - union When time matters.
Like the words of other parts of speech, unions have a stylistic coloring. Many unions are stylistically neutral, for example: if, when, what, how, or, and, but. Part of the unions is peculiar only oral speech, including literary colloquial: as soon as, once, good. Many compound unions belong to book speech, and it is the same for all its varieties: due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, notwithstanding the fact that and etc.
Methodological note. In the primary grades, there is no special topic “Unions”, but almost already in the very initial period of education, children get acquainted with unions a, and, but. Like prepositions, they are called "little words". It is important already during this period to draw the attention of children to the fact that unions are written separately from other words and before ah, but always put a comma. In the 2nd grade in the Russian language lessons, especially when performing creative work, children widely use complex sentences with conjunctions when, if, because, what.
Here it is possible propaedeutically to tell students that these words should be preceded by a comma. A more detailed acquaintance with coordinating unions is carried out in the 4th grade (according to the 1-4 system) when studying homogeneous members of a sentence. Students are informed that homogeneous members of a sentence can be connected by words a, and, but, or. Here it is important to draw the attention of children to the difference in intonation before these unions (purely practically) and to consolidate the skill of putting a comma before unions ah, but. You can draw the attention of children to the fact that before a single union And The comma is not put, but when repeated, it is required.
Particles
Particles are a part of speech that includes unchangeable non-significant words that serve to express the semantic, emotional and modal-volitional shades of words, phrases and sentences. Wed: I did the job. — I almost did the job; He started to work. — He just started to work. In these sentences, the particles show the degree of completion of the action, that is, they clarify the meaning of the verbs done, started. Wed more: I will come tomorrow. - I'm not likely to come tomorrow. Particle hardly shows that the validity of the action is questioned. Wed more: Aren't you coming with us? And Won't you come with us?
Here the particles (highlighted), forming together with the intonation the interrogative modality of the sentence, express at the same time the doubt, surprise, distrust of the speaker. With the help of particles can be transmitted various meanings: statement (yes, yes) negation (no, no, no) doubt (really, really) uncertainty (hardly, hardly) selection (exactly, directly) limitation (only, only, only only) and other meanings.
By value and by function, all particles are divided into the following categories:
1. Particles expressing the semantic shades of words. These include: a) defining particles: barely (barely spoke), exactly, exactly, almost (almost red), almost (almost fell) etc.; b) particles that serve to distinguish an object, attribute, action from a number of others or enhance the meaning of an object, attribute, action. These particles are called excretory-restrictive. These include particles: only, even, yet, at least, at least, just, just, only. For example: I don't want to wish you good night(G.). Here is a particle And, synonymous even, reinforces the object of action. Wed more: It was he who said so; That's exactly what he said; He just said, not wrote. In these sentences, the particle exactly highlights the word before it.
2. Emotionally expressive particles. These particles express the speaker's emotionally expressive attitude to what is being said: What a delight these stories are!(P.); After all, it is so clear that in order to begin to live in the present, we must first redeem our past, put an end to it ...(Ch.); How good you are, O night sea!(Tyutch.) These include particles: after all, well, something, still, simply, like this, where like and etc.
3. Modal and modal-volitional particles. This group of particles expresses the relation of what is being expressed to reality, i.e. they convey an assertion or denial, a question or an impulse, show the reliability of what is being said, comparison, etc.: Is it the same Tatyana?(P.); Can you tell me about it, what years did you live in?(Isak); Aren't you ashamed of the walls?(Kr.) Modal-volitional particles include particles: yes, no, really, hardly, hardly, let, let, perhaps, really, perhaps, perhaps etc. This also includes particles denoting the subjective transmission of someone else's speech: say, say.
4. A special group of particles are shaping particles. They serve to form forms of moods of the verb, to form forms of degrees of comparison, for example: the most interesting, more beautiful, he would say, let him say. These particles in their meaning and function are close to formative affixes. As for the derivational particles of the -th, -either, -the same, -ka, something, distinguished by some researchers in the category of particles, then they (particles) should be considered as a special kind of word-forming affixes.
The proposed classification of particles cannot cover all their meanings, since the meanings of some particles are specified in the sentence. In addition, many particles have close connections with words from other parts of speech. In them, to varying degrees, there are elements of the meanings of adverbs (literally, completely, directly) pronouns (everything, everything, it, this) verbs (was, look) unions (well, good, after all, even, let, let, at least, so that), pretexts (like). Often there is a combination of the meanings of a particle and a union, a particle and an adverb. In this case, they must be qualified in two ways: the union is a particle, the particle is an adverb, etc. (For more on this, see the Homonymy Parts of Speech section.)
All particles, except for formative ones, are characteristic of colloquial speech and are widely found in fiction. They are not characteristic of official business and scientific styles of speech.
Methodological note. In elementary grades, attention to modal-volitional particles helps the teacher to show the specifics of interrogative and exclamatory sentences and give certain recommendations to students for expressive reading.
Modal words
General characteristics of modal words. Modality is a conceptual and grammatical category that expresses the attitude of the speaker to the statement, the attitude of the statement to objective reality.
Modality is expressed by various means: lexical, morphological and syntactic. For example, various significant words can have a modal meaning (want, be able, suppose, assert, true, false etc.). These are lexical means of expressing modality.
The meanings of modality are expressed by the forms of verb moods, that is, morphologically.
Different modal values inherent in various types of sentences: narrative, incentive (functional modality), interrogative, affirmative and negative, that is, this is a syntactic expression of modality.
There is another kind of modality - subjective modality, which is expressed by special modal words. Modal words are a class of immutable words that express the speaker's subjective attitude to the statement or part of it in terms of its reliability / unreliability. For example: You may have heard - we're leaving(I. T.) - combination May be conveys the meaning of presumptiveness; "Resolutely - he is a charm," she said, not that thoughtfully, not that absent-mindedly(I. T.) - word resolutely Expresses the meaning of confidence in what is reported in the proposal.
Modal words in a sentence are not grammatically related to its other members and are not members of a sentence. Most often they function introductory words, standing out in the text intonationally (in writing - with punctuation marks). For example: Your library has certainly grown since then?(Sol.) In addition, modal words can act as a sentence-word in a dialogue response. For example: "No, are you serious?" she asked, gradually realizing the absurdity of the unexpected event. - "Certainly"(Ant.).
Modal words are formed from significant ones, often have homonyms among them. For example: Troyekurov ordered to catch up with him at once and bring him back without fail.(P.). In this sentence, the word without fail is an adverb, refers to the verb-predicate and is not distinguished either intonationally or by commas. Surely, he will return. In this sentence, the word certainly- modal, the speaker's confidence matters. Or: He copied the drawing exactly. - He, exactly, copies the drawing.
Discharges of modal words by meaning. According to the meaning that modal words give to the statement or its individual parts, they are divided into several groups. The main ones are as follows.
1. Modal words expressing confidence, reliability (of course, undoubtedly, naturally, exactly, definitely, really, indeed and etc.); combinations (actually, it goes without saying, it goes without saying and etc.). For example: In fact: take it and leave it!(Kav.)
2. Modal words expressing the meaning of presumption, uncertainty (it seems, probably, apparently, hardly, maybe and etc.); combinations (in all likelihood, most likely and etc.). For example: Maybe you were right(I. T.); Apparently the moment has come.(Kav.).
Interjection
Interjection as a part of speech. Interjections are a class of unchanging words that serve to express various feelings and volitional impulses of a person. (oh, ah! well! and etc.).
In the system of parts of speech, interjections occupy a special place. Interjections differ from service words in that they do not link the members of a sentence or parts of a complex sentence like unions; do not express the relationship of nouns and pronouns to other words in the sentence, like prepositions; do not attach semantic, modal and expressive meanings to words or sentences, like particles.
Interjections differ from significant parts of speech in that they, expressing feelings and impulses, do not name them. For example: Ah, quickly my youth flashed like a falling star(P.). In this sentence, the interjection Oh expresses a feeling of regret, but does not name it, in contrast to the words sorry, sorry and etc. Or: Oh my god, perch! Ah, ah... hurry!(Ch.) In this sentence, the interjection combination My God and interjection Oh express a feeling of delight. Many interjections can serve to express various feelings.
So, for example, in the works of A. S. Pushkin, the interjection Oh used to express feelings of surprise, conjecture, joy, distrust, etc.: Ah!., wait; what a great idea...(expresses a feeling of joy); Ah, mother is coming...(expresses a feeling of fear); Oh, he's a lieutenant! ah villain!(expresses a feeling of indignation). Interjection A also expresses various feelings. For example: A! So you are obedient to my will!(interjection expresses a feeling of displeasure); "A! Pyotr Andreevich! he said when he saw me...(expresses a feeling of joyful surprise).
Some interjections, despite the fact that they do not have a nominative function, nevertheless have a content assigned to them. For example, interjection Alas serves to express feelings of grief, regret; interjection guard expresses a call for assistance, etc.
In a sentence, interjections are not syntactically related to its members. They can act as an independent interjection sentence. For example: “Fathers! the thin man was amazed. "Misha!" Childhood friend!(Ch.) Some interjections can act as a predicate. For example: Tatyana ah! and he roar(P.).
In speech, interjections are pronounced with a special intonation (raising the tone, increasing the strength of the sound, in some cases - the length of the vowels).
Ranks of interjections. According to what interjections express, they are usually divided into two groups: emotional and incentive (imperative).
Emotional interjections ABOUT! Oh! Oh! Hooray! Bravo! Fathers! A! Wow! and others express a feeling of joy, delight, approval, surprise, bewilderment, fear, and also give a description, assessment of events, states, etc. For example: Oh! Skalozub, my soul...(Gr.) - an interjection serves to express a feeling of joy, delight; Oh! My God! what will Princess Marya Aleksevna say!(Gr.) - interjections express fear.
Incentive interjections express different types of motivation: Out! Hush! Well! S-s-s! Shh! March! Aida!
For example: Grinev, learning from him about the danger ... ordered: march, march ...(P.); Where, Ostap, is your sopilka? Well, goat!(G.) Interjections calling for attention: Ay! Hey! Hello! For example: "Hey Dunya! the caretaker shouted, “put the samovar on!”(P.); Dasha watched in silence as her father twisted the handle of the phone, shouting: “Hello, hello!”(Hump.)
Interjections also include speech formulas of politeness, i.e. words and combinations expressing greeting, farewell, gratitude, etc.: Hello! Thank you! Goodbye! and etc.
By structure, interjections are divided into non-derivative and derivative. The former include interjections of the type ah, oh, ah, eh, well, wow etc. They consist of one vowel sound: A! uh!\ from two vowels ay!; from vowel and consonant: Oh! eh! ba!; from two vowels and a consonant: yeah! Wow! Alas!; from consonants: brr! Some of the listed interjections can appear in double and triple form: wow! heh heh heh! Some of these interjections can connect with particles (come on! come on!) or with a verbal postfix (Come on!).
Interjection derivatives correlate with the words of other parts of speech: verbs (Look! Hello! Sorry) nouns (Fathers! Trouble! Horror!), pronouns (That's it!), adverbs (Complete!): Derived interjections can be compound: Here's one for you! That's the thing!
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